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Rangeland Resources and Strategies for Improvements in Nepal

2011-08-15T00:54:00.000-07:00

Review:
Rangeland Resources and Strategies for Improvements in Nepal

Rameshwar Singh Pande
Address: Chabahil-7, P O Box 10245, Kathmandu, Nepal. Tel (977 1) 4460861, 9841345082. Correspondence: Email: rameshwarpande@yahoo.com; panderameshwar@gmail.com.

Reference: Pande, RS, 2009. Review:Status of Rangeland Resources and Strategies for Improvements in Nepal, CAB Reviews: Perspectives in Agriculture, Veterinary Science, Nutrition and Natural Resources 2009 4, No. 047 http://www.cababstractsplus.org/cabreviews

Abstract
The livelihood of the Himalayan Sherpa people depends on rangeland based livestock farming in Nepal. In above 2,500 m altitude contribution of rangelands in livestock feed supply is more than 65 percent. Rangeland comprises about 11.5 percent of the total land resources on Nepal and over 98 percent are located in high Mountains & Himalayan regions. Nepal is rich in biodiversity and over 180 native species of grasses and legumes are found. Major rangelands vegetations are Tropical (Phragmitis- Saccharum- Imperata type), Sub-tropical (Themeda- Arundinella type), Temperate (Andropogon type), Sub-alpine (Danthonia type), Alpine (Kobresia type) and Steppe. The production and productivity of rangelands range from 0.12 to 3.2 mt DM/ha. Only 64 percent of the rangelands are accessible. Most of the rangeland are over stocked and severely grazed out. The estimated carrying capacity ranges from 0.06 to 1.4 LU/ha. The stocking rate on rangelands is 3.5 times to 37 times high. Indigenous techniques for the rangelands management are not keeping pace with the increased livestock population. Traditionally, practiced transfrontier pasturing between Tibet and Nepal has been closed by the Tibetan/Chinese government for Nepalese migratory herds effective from 1990, which compelled the Nepal government to initiate various rangeland development activities to meet the feed supply for Himalayan herds. Till now only 0.5 % of the total rangelands of the high Himalayan regions have been improved. Major challenges on rangeland development/management are dispute on ownership/users’ right on rangelands resources, lack of basic information on rangelands, deteriorating conditions of rangelands and associated forests, poor infrastructural facilities, remoteness, ad hock collection of grazing fees, lack of co-relation between stocking rate vs carrying capacity, community awareness, lack of support services, invasion of rangelands, poor people's participation, poor research and extension, high cost of development, poor supply/production of planting materials are some major problems for rangelands improvements. Since, 1990 UNDP supported 'High Altitude Pasture and Fodder Development Project' phased out, no significant work has been done to improve the pastures of Himalayan regions. The pasture improvement programmes should be continued to cover much more areas of indigenous rangelands. Legume components in the natural rangelands of Nepal are negligible. Incorporation of the legume in natural rangelands, improvement of physical facilities, opening new rangelands/use of unutilised community pasture areas, adoption of proper grazing management, closing of the rangelands from the grazing animals are some recommendations to improve the rangelands productivity.

Keywords: Rangeland, Himalaya, Yak, Nepal, Sherpa,

Review methodology:
Documents, reports related to rangeland resources, livestock production, feeds and fodder situations and other relevant issues were published from Department of Livestock Services (DLS), Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC), Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO), International Centre for Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Institute of Agriculture and Animal Sciences (IAAS), Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation (MFSC) and others were studied, reviewed, analysed and documented to prepare this paper.

Review:
1. Importance of Rangelands in Nepal
Rangelands are important resource of feed for domestic as well as wild ungulates in Nepal (Figure 1 & 2). Rangelands are abundant in high altitude Himalayan areas of Nepal. Overall rangeland contributes 11.5 percent in total livestock feed supply. In high altitude Himalayan areas above 2,500 m contribution of rangelands in feed supply is more than 65 percent [1]. Rangelands are rich sources of herbaceous vegetation. Many rare medicinal plants and herbs are found in Himalayan rangelands. Most of the rangelands are found as a part of watershed areas contributing significantly on soil water conservation as well. The physical conditions of these rangelands not only contribute to the feed supply to the grazing animals but also influence the natural resource management and bio-diversity conservation.
2 Areas and Distribution of Rangelands, Nepal
It is estimated that over 1.7 million ha of land is considered as rangelands which comprises approximately 11.5 percent of the total land resources on Nepal [1] (LRMP, 1986). Area of the rangelands increases so as the elevation. Out of total area under rangelands, over 98 percent is located in Hills and High Mountains and less than 2 percent rangelands are found in plain below 1000 m altitudes are mainly confined inside the national parks and wildlife sanctuaries. The percentage of rangelands in different ecological region is presented in (Table 1).

Table 1: Type of Rangelands according to the Ecological Belt, Nepal
Description
Ecological belt
Nepal
Mountains
Terai
Hills
Area (ha)
10,82,232.0
74,100.9
5,45,334.9
17,01,670.8
Percent
63.6
4.4
32.0
100
Climate
Temperate
Tropical
Sub-tropical
-
Source: [1] LRMP, 1986

3.0 Vegetation Type of Rangelands, Nepal
Due to the extreme climate variations, different types of rangeland are found in Nepal. Nepal is rich in biodiversity; over 6,500 species of flowering plants have been recorded to be found [2] (Forestry Master Plan, 1989; [3] (MFSC, 2006). It was estimated that over 180 species of different species of grasses and legumes are found. Most of these species are grasses; only few species are legumes such as Astragalus spp, Medicago SP, Desmodium spp and others. On the basis of physiographic and ecological distribution of rangelands, [4] Livestock Master Plan (1993) identified following type of vegetation:
· Tropical: Phragmitis- Saccharum- Imperata type
· Sub-tropical: Themeda- Arundinella type
· Temperate: Andropogon type
· Sub-alpine: Danthonia type
· Alpine: Kobresia type
· Steppe:

3.1 Tropical Rangelands Vegetation (Phanta):
The Plain areas of Nepal has tropical types of vegetation. Such types of vegetation are found up to the elevation below 1,000 m, where the climate is humid - warm tropical. In this zone, summer is hot (35-38oC) and cool winter. Rainfall is quite heavy during monsoon (July to September). Average rainfall is 1917 mm/yr. Most of the growth of the grasses takes place during monsoon period. Humid tropical rangelands are more confined in the national park, wildlife reserves of Terai belt, bordering to India. The rangelands of this zone are called "Phanta" in Nepali. The characteristic feature of such rangeland is the dominance of tall grasses such as Phragmites, Sacharum, and Imperata spp. These grasses have low feeding value, however, these grasses provides excellent shelter to the wildlife. The rangelands of this zone are associated with the evergreen hardwood forest.
· Major grasses: Andropogon pumilus, Bothriochloa intermedia, Bothriochoa odorata, Chrysopogan aciculatus, Cynoden dactylon, Desmostachys bipinnata, Hymenachne pseudoinlerrupta, Imperata cylindrica, Ischaemmum timorense, Narenga porphyroecoma, Panucum natatum, Paspalum conjugatum, Phragmites karka, Saccharum arundinaceum, Sacchrrum bengalense, Saccharum spotaneum, Sclerostachya fusca, Sporobolus indicus, Vetiveria zizaniodes and others.
· Major fodder tree and shrubs: Artocarpus lakoocha, Ficus bengalensis, Ficus religiosa, Zizyphus jubuta, Tamarindus indica, Bahunia variagata, Dalbergia sissoo and others.

Tropical rangelands are rapidly disappearing. For example, most of the tropical rangelands outside the national parks and wildlife reserves are converted into cultivable lands. Remnants of these species can be found in the uncultivated barren lands, river and roadside. No attempts have been made to evaluate the feeding value of these grasses in Nepal. As these grasses are coarse and fibrous, the feed value is considered as low. Besides the animal feed these grasses also used for thatching, to prepare household materials such as broom, mats and for paper mills. The Dry Matter (DM) production is considered is about 3-4 Mt/ha of herbaceous forage and about 250 kg of browse per hectare [5] Alirol, 1979; [6]Archer, 1987; [7] Archer, 1990; [8] FAO, 1990) [9] Grela, A. and Sharma, K.P. 1991 Wide ranges of tree/shrub species grown in this region are used fodder source.

3.2 Sub-tropical Rangelands Vegetation
This type of rangelands is found in the Middle hills between the elevations of 1,000-2,000 m. In this zone, sub-tropical climate is found. The average temperature is 15- 20oC and rainfall is 1,700 mm/yr. These are the open grazing-lands appears in a small patches associated with the evergreen forests around the vicinity of human dwellings. The forest vegetation is Chir pine (Pinus roxburghii); Chilaune (Schima wallichii) and Castenopsis spp). These rangelands are developed by clearing the forest trees for domestic use. The characteristic feature of these rangelands is the domination of the Arundinella; Themeda, Thysanolaena and other grass species. Most of the rangelands suitable for crop cultivation are converted into the croplands.

Most of these rangelands are heavily grazed out and are in poor conditions. The productivity of these rangelands are estimated to be about 1.5 to 2.0 mt DM/ha of herbaceous forage and 300 kg/ha of browse materials [6] Archer, 1987; [7] Archer, 1990; [8] FAO, 1990); [9] Grela, A. and Sharma, K.P. 1991. [10] Dhaubhadel, T.S., Tiwari, B.N. 1992. The feed quality of these grasses is of medium quality. A list of major species of these types of rangelands is as follow:
· Major grasses: Andropogon pumilis, Apluda mutica, Arundinell bengalensis, Arundinella nepalensis, Bothriochloa intermedia, Bothriochloa decumbens, Chrysopogon fulvus, Chrysopogon gryllus, Chrysopogon jwarancusa, Capillipedium parviflorum, Cymbopogon microtheca, Cymbopogon stracheyi, Cynodon dactylon, Dimeria fuscescens, Digitaria setigera, Digitoria cruciata, Eragrostiella leioptera, Eragrostis nigra, Eulaliopsis binata, Eleusina indica, Heleropogon contortus, Isachna globusa, Ischaemum baratum, Oplismenus compositus, Paspalidium flavidum, Paspalum dilitatum, Paspalum scrobiculatum, Penisetum clandestinum, Penisetum pedicellatum, Perotis hordeiformis, Polygonum spp, Sporobolus fertilis, Thysanolaena maxima and others.
· Major fodder trees/shrubs are: Artocarpus lakoocha, Bauhinia purpurea, Boehmeria rugulosa, Bomax malabaricum, Utea brondosa, Erythrina variegata, Eugenia jambolana, Ficus religiosa, Garuga pinnta, Litsea monopetala, Morus alba, Premna spp, Terminalia chebula, Terminalia tomentosa, Ziziphus spp and others.

3.3 Temperate Rangelands Vegetation (Kharka): This type of rangelands is found in between the elevation of 2,000 - 3,000 m. In this zone summer, is mild and winter is cold, average temperature is 10-15oC. Average rainfall is 1500-1700 mm/yr. This type of rangelands is characterised by the domination of Andropogan spp. The most common species such as Pennisetum flaccidum (Nepali name: Dhimso) is used to make hay by the farmers of these region. This rangelands are associated with the evergreen oak (Quercus spp and Pinus excelsa) forest. Study on species composition of natural rangelands at Guthichaur Sheep Farm, Jumla in June 1989 showed that Chrysopogan grylus and Arundinella hookerii are the major indigenous grass species either in caged or un-caged areas. The Relative Density was 54.5 and 33.2 percent respectively in the caged areas, whereas in the un-caged area the relative density was 70.0 and 18.4 percent of the above-mentioned two species. [11] Singh, et al 1990.

The major species are found in such rangelands are as follow:
· Major grasses: Agropyron canaliculatum, Agropyron semicostatum, Agrostis canina, Agrostis falipus, Agrostis micrantha, Agrostis muriantha, Agrostis pilosula, Anaphalis contorta, Andropogon pumilus, Andropogen tritis, Arundenella hookerii, Brachypodium sylvaticum, Bromus ramorus, Bothriochloa bladhii, Calamagrostis epigejos, Calamagrostis emodensis, Calamagrostis pseudophragmites , Chrysopogon gryllus, Cymbopogon distans, Cymbopogon microtheca, Danthonia jacqnemontii, Deschampsia caespitosa, Deyeuscia scabrescens, Digiterai spp, Eragrostis nigra, Erigeron alpinus, Elymus caninus, Eulalia mollis, Festuca gigantea, Festuca ovina, Festuca rubra, Helictotrichon asperum, Keoleria cristata, Muhenbergia spp, Miscanthus nepalensis, Oryzopsis aequiglumis, Paspalum spp, Pennisetum flaccidum, Poa pratensis, Poa alpina, Poa annua, Polygonum spp, Seteria pallidefusca, Schizachyrium delarvayi, Stippa concinna, Taraxacum officinale, Themeda quadrivalis, Thymus serphyllum, Trisetum spicatumm, Trisetum micans and others.
· Major legumes: Desmodium spp, Medicago denticulata, Medicago lupinina, Pretropis cytosoides, Trigonella emodi, Vicia spp and others.
· Major fodder tree/shrubs: Alnus nepalensis, Bassia butyracea, Bauhinia purpurea, Brassaiopsis hainla, Grewia tiliaefolia, Saurauia nepaulensis, Ficus nemoralis, Buddleja asiatia, Ficus clavata, Wandlandia exerta, Castanopsis indica, Celtis australis, Eurya spp and others.

Temperate rangelands have major contribution in high altitude livestock production. The productivity of these rangelands is estimated about 1- 1.5 mt DM/ha of herbaceous forage and 1,500 kg of browse/ha [6] Archer, 1987; [7] Archer, 1990; [8] FAO, 1990).

3.4 Sub-alpine Rangelands Vegetation: These rangelands are found in between the elevation of 3,000 - 4,000 m. The region is semi-arid, average temperature is 3 – 10°C, and annual rainfall is very low varies from 150-500 mm/yr depending on location. These rangelands are the important sources of animal feed for the migratory stock. Nomadic herds of yak, chauris and sheep heavily depend on these grazinglands during summer. The grasses are associated with Rhododendrons, Betula spp, Tsuga dumosa, Danthonia, Stipa spp.

The major vegetation is as follow:
· Major grasses: Agrostis inaequiglumis, Agrostis pilosula, Agrostis tenuis, Anthoxanthum hookerii, Arrhanatherum elatius, Bromus himalaicus, Calamagrostis emodensis, Calamagrostis pulchella, Crotalaria albida, Danthonia schneideri, Duthiea nepalensis, Elymus canaliculatus, Elymus dehuricus, Elymus nuleris, Elymus schrenleiannus, Festuca eumminsii, Festuca leptopogon, Festuca omina, Helictotricton virescens, Medicago lupina, Poa alpina, Poa ludens, Poa polycolea, Stipa concinna, Stipa duthiea, Stipa koelzei, Stipa regeliana, Stipa seliria, Triluria oreophilia, Trisetum spicatum and others.
· Major legumes: Medicago lupina, Vicia tetrasperma and others.
· Major Shrubs: Berberis, Caragana, Junipers, Potentiall, Rosa, Spiraea and others.
· Major trees: Rhododendron spp, Juniperus spp, Betula spp, Rosa spp, Potentilla spp, Berberis and others.
· Major fodder tree/shrubs: Albizzia leblek, Betula spp, Brassaiopsis glomerulata, Castanopsis tribuloides, Ilex dipyrena, Machilus odoratissima, Quercus semicarpifolia, Quercus lamellosa, Symplocos spp and others.

The productivity of this rangeland is about 1.5 t DM/ha of the herbaceous foliage. [6] Archer, 1987; [7] Archer, 1990; [8] FAO, 1990).

3.5 Alpine Rangelands Vegetation: Such type of rangelands is situated above 4,000 m and is covered with snow most of the year. During summer when snow melts the grasses grow very quickly and complete the life cycle. During these period these rangeland provides 3 - 4 months of grazing to the nomadic herds of Yak, Chauris and sheep.

A small of different plant community are common in this region. Department of Medicinal Plants reported that in alpine meadow of Langtang Valley the major species were Cortia depressa and Kobresia spp. In the Cortia type meadow 40-80 percent of the coverage was occupied by Cortia depressa and the subsidiary species were Potentilla pedunculosa, Primula obliqua, Carex spp and Geranium polyanthes. Whereas in the Kobresia type meadow, Kobresia spp occupied 40-90 percent of the coverage and the subsidiary species were varying in different sites. In the slopes the meadow were dominated with gramineous vegetation. The major species were Carex spp, Agrostis and Poa spp. On the level ground of open meadow Caltha palustris was a dominant species. The abundance of Caltha spp on well-grazed rangelands may be due to the unpalatability of this species to the animals. Caltha could be poisonous to the livestock. The other major species on level ground was Potentilla coriandifolia and others [12] Department of Medicinal Plants (1976)

On the exposed ridge the dominant species was Oxygraphis gracialis. Whereas on gravely slopes with mosey ground cover Bistorta vaccinifolia vegetation was common. The major type of vegetation is as follow:
· Major grasses: Agrostis pilosula, Androsace lehmani, Carex spp Cortia depressa, Elymus nutans Kobrasa hookerii, Kobresia nepalensis, Poa alpina, Poa attenuata, Potentilla argyrophylla and others.
· Major forbs: Astragalus spp, Galium spp, Geranium nepalensis, Plantago lanceolata, Potentilla spp, Saxifraga spp, Taraxacum sp. Thymus serpyllum, Trifolium repens Vicia spp and others.
· Major shrubs: Berberis spp, Juniperus communis, Rhodendron spp, Rosa spp, Salix spp and others.

The productivity of the herbaceous forage is about 1.5 mt/ha. [6] Archer, 1987; [7] Archer, 1990; [8] FAO, 1990). Major Plant species found in the Langtang Valley [12] (Department of Medicinal Plant, 1976) (Table-2)

Table 2 Vegetational composition of Langtang Valley, Nepal
Type
Alt m
Coverage %
# Spp
Cortia depressa
3,880
88
21
Kobresia pygmaea
3,900
98
11
Caltha palustris
3,950
95
10
Potentilla spp
4,030
95
7
Source: [12] Department of Medicinal Plant, 1976

3.6 Steppe Rangelands Vegetation: The northern side of the Dhaulagiree/Annapurna Himalayan range (Manang, Mustang and Dolpa) an arid, treeless plateau; is categorized as steppe zone and the elevation ranges from 2,500 to 5,000 m. This entire zone is dry and receives rain less than 500 mm/annum. Wind erosion is quite common; a high velocity wind blows during afternoon. The soil of the region is severely eroded with loss of fine particles and organic material. Most of the areas are denuded and bare ground. The vegetation cover is sparse and poor in quality. The major vegetation type is as follows:
· Major grasses: Andropogon tritis, Aristida spp, Calamagrostis spp, Crysopogon stellera, Cymbopogon stracheyi, Danthonia cachemyriana, Deyeuxia holciformis, Deyeuxia pulchella, Festuca ovina, Melica jacquemontii, Melica scaberrima, Orinus thordii, Oryzopsis lateralis, Pennisetum flaccidum, Poa alpigena, Poa pagophila, Poa poophagorum, Rumex nepalensis, Stippa spp and others.
· Legume: Medicago falcata and others.
· Major forbs: Astragalus spp, Medicago falcata, Nepata elata, Polygonum spp, Sambucus wightiana , Taraxacum spp, Thymus serpyllum, Viola spp and others.
· Major shrubs: Artemisia maritima, Berberis spp, Caragana brevispina, Caragana gerardiana, Ephedra gerardiana, Lonicera spinosa, Rosa sericea and others.
· Major trees: Juniperus squamata, Pinus wallichiana and others.

Scattered bushes of Caragana spp are observed to be appearing on such rangelands [13] Basnyat (1988) observed that grasses and legumes grow inside these bushes and complete its lifecycle by protecting from wind erosion and grazing. The productivity of these rangelands is very low and feed quality is also considered as low. Kandel et al reported the plant composition and the productivity of the rangelands of Mustang regions [14] Kandel et al. (1988) in (Table 3).

Table 3. Plant Composition and DM yield at Mustang, Nepal
Plant Species
Muktinath
(Alt 3610 m)
Ghami
(Alt 3740)
Lho-Manthang
(Alt. 3930m)
DM Kg/ha
Cover %
DM
Kg/ha
Cover %
DM kg/ha
Cover %
Rosa sericea
1,116
35.2
-
-
-
-
Caragana spp
511
16.3
216.0
40.2
232.2
28.2
Artimisia sp
435
13.5
181.7
33.8
201.6
24.8
Cotoneaster sp
195
6.2
-
-
-
-
Stippa spp
234
7.4
-
-
-
-
M. falcata
93
3
-
-
22.3
2.8
P.flaccidium
72
2.2
49.6
9.2
67.3
8.3
Anaphalis sp
190
6.1
14.4
2.7
-
-
S.hamaefasme
84
2.7
-
-
-
-
E.gerardiana
101
3.2
-
-
-
-
Potentilla spp
-
-
1.4
8.0
67.3
8.3
S.sponteneum
-
-
42.9
8.0
-
-
Others
160
4.3
31.6
5.9
-
-
Average Production
290
-
76.8
-
116.3
-
Source: Adapted from [14] Kandel et al. (1988).

4.0 Rangelands Production and Utilisation
4.1 Productivity of Rangelands:
The quality and quantity of fodder produced in natural rangelands are very poor, on an average pasture production range from 0.12 Mt DM/ha to 3.2 mt DM/ha [5] Alirol, 1979; [6] Archer, 1987; and [15] Shrestha et al, 1990). Similarly, FAO estimate that pasture production is more in per-humid rangelands compared to the other climatic zone [16] FAO (1990) (Table 4). Similarly, an experiment was carried out to estimate DM production of native rangelands of two different sites at Solukhumbu area, Syangboche (elevation 3720-3780 m) and Tauche (elevation 4220-4400 masl). Mean DM yield recorded in September 1990 was 1010 kg DM/ha at Tauche and 1440 kg DM/ha at Syangboche [16] FAO (1990). (Table -4)

Table 4 Pasture Production from Different types rangelands
Types of rangelands
Yield mt DM/ha
Per humid rangeland
3.0-4.0
Semi humid rangelands
1.0-1.5
Semi arid rangeland
0.15-0.035
Per humid/humid forest
8.75
Sub-humid forest
0.50
Source: [16] FAO, 1990

Pasture production is much more depends on altitude and ecological zone in natural state of growth. In the high altitude regions, above the tree line rangelands are the main vegetation. The climate is too cold and unsuitable for tree growth. The growing season is very short. For example, in Syangboche region vegetational growth starts from late April – first May depending on the initiation of the spring and ends towards mid Nov to mid Dec, which gives average 175- 204 days of vegetation growth period [9] (Grela and Sharma, 1991). Wiart found that pasture production was highest at 2700 m altitude compared to 2000 m; 3,700 and 4,000 m. Total DM yield was 3.2, 2.02, 2.03 and 2.06 Mt DM/ha respectively; on the basis of 3 cut per year in the central regions of Nepal [17] Wiart (1983). Shrestha et al reported that annual DM production is approximately 3.6 Mt DM/ha in Terthum district of eastern Nepal at elevation 2040 - 2150 m and Taplejung (altitude 2,450 - 2,630 m). Similarly under Jiri conditions the fodder yield was 3 Mt DM/ha and the growing season was for 5 months [15] Shrestha et al (1990) (Table 5).
Table 5: Production Pattern of Native pasture (kg DM/ha).
Months
Taplejung
Alt. 2450-2630 m
Terhathum
Alt.2040-2150 m
Jiri ( Alt 1935 m)
Jan
175.0
101.5
0.0
Feb
93.6
68.0
0.0
March
0.0
60.3
0.0
April
234.8
55.7
0.0
May
293.2
0.0
0.0
June
842.1
64.5
1000
July
212.8
0.0
700
August
588.1
0.0
600
September
516.8
835
300
October
284.1
300
400
November
140.0
306
0.0
December
161.0
0.0
0.0
Total
4041.8
1791
3000
Source: [15] Shrestha et al, 1990,

Paudyal and Bauer found that in most of the kharka at altitude 2200 to 3,999 m in Sagarmatha National Park the grass cover was 40-50 percent. And, most of the pasture was at the height below 30 cm [18] Paudyal and Bauer (1988). Many exotic pasture species introduced in Nepal. The productivity of these pastures varies according to the cultivar used as well as the management practices. Mono- cultivation of ryegrass at Jumla yielded 12.6 Mt/ha [11] Singh et al 1990). Similarly, cocksfoot 6.5 mt/ha at Jiri [19] Panday et al 1990).

4.2 Production and Utilization of Pastures:
The total production of fodder from the rangelands is 5067,963 MT DM. A large quantity of forage lost due to inaccessibility to harvest and/or due to under utilization by the animals. It is estimated that only 64 percent of the rangelands are accessible. Rest are inaccessible due to steepness, lack of trail, lack of drinking water, rocks and others. Pasture production from the accessible rangelands is only 3241428.5 MT DM. Furthermore, whole quantity of pasture produced in accessible rangelands may not be utilized by/for the livestock due to seasonality of growth, migratory system of grazing, snow fall, rain, plant senescence and others. It is estimated that only 74.4 percent of the pasture produced in accessible area are utilized. When compared to the total pasture production, only 2413160.7 MT DM , which is 47.6 percent, are assumed to be available for grazing stock [20] Pande, 1994; [21] Pande, 1997. (Table 6).

Table 6: Fodder production and utilization from rangelands
Description
Ecological belt
Nepal
Himal
Hills
Terai
Area of rangelands (ha)
10,82,235
5,45,335
74,101
17,01,671
Fodder yield (mt DM / ha)
3.0
3.0
2.5
2.98
Total fodder (mt DM/yr)
3246705
1636005
185252.5
5067962.5
Accessible %
60
70
80
64.1
Accessible (ha)
649341
381734.5
59280.8
1090356.3
Accessible fodder (Mt DM/yr)
1948023
1145203.5
148202.0
3241428.5
Utilization %
70
80
90
47.6
Utilized fodder Mt/DM/yr
1363616.1
916162.8
133381.8
2413160.7
Based on [20] Pande, 1994; [21] Pande, 1997.

4.3 Nutritive Value of Pastures
The nutritive value of the pasture depends on vegetation type and season of availability. The pasture produced in the lower zone is less nutritious and tends to be matured earlier compared to the alpine pastures. The alpine pastures are very nutritious. The average CP content is found 10.5 percent [12] Dhaubhadel and Tiwari, 1992). Most of the migratory herd gain weight and the breeding take place while grazing on the alpine pastures. The nutritive value of the alpine pastures is presented in (Table 7)

Table 7: Nutritive value of the alpine pastures (Nutrients in %)
Nutrients
August
September
Mean
Dry Matter (DM)
16.1
16.1
16.1
Crude Protein (CP)
10.9
9.5
10.5
Crude Fat (CF)
1.4
1.8
1.6
Total ash
5.5
7.1
6.3
ADF
35.7
38.6
37.2
Organic matter
94.7
92.9
93.8
Nitrogen
1.74
1.52
1.63
Source: [12] Dhaubhadel and Tiwari (1992)
Calculation of DM and CP percentage of the natural alpine pastures: The alpine pastures remain most succulent and nutritious during the months of June to September. During these period, the DM percent is less than 25 and CP percent is in the peak. As the plant mature percentage of DM increases and reaches up to 80 percent during the months of February [15] Shrestha, et al ,1990 (Table 8).

Table 8: Monthly variation of DM and CP % of the alpine pastures
Months
DM %
CP %
January
70
-
February
80
-
March
67
-
April

May
40
11.6
June
30
12.7
July
22
14.4
August
22
14.0
September
25
-
October
30
12.4
November
34
12.8
December
46
8.6
Source: [15] Shrestha, et al ,1990

5.0 Stocking Rate and Carrying Capacity
Most of the available land resources are over stocked beyond its carrying capacity. Carrying capacity and stocking rate vary within the region. There is a lack of systematic study to evaluate carrying capacity of grazing areas for different stocks for the different ecological belts of Nepal. Alirol (1979) estimated that the carrying capacity is 1.4 LU/ha for Kalinchok region [5} Alirol, 1979. Whereas Archer estimated that the carrying capacity for the high altitude regions are no more than 0.06 LU/ha/yr [6] Archer 1987. In the recent study at Terhathum district, Eastern Nepal (elevation 1500-2900m) Shrestha et al estimated that the carrying capacity is 1.7 adult cattle/ha [15] Shrestha et al 1990 (Table-9)

Table 9: Number of Livestock per Unit of Land
Description
Ecological belt
Nepal
Mountains
Hills
Terai
Livestock #
24,31,237
92,97,569
55,91,327
1,73,20,133
Livestock unit (LU)
6,25,558.1
28,27,049.8
18,74,270.0
53,26,877.9
Total land (TL)
51,86,180.8
61,52,459.9
34,09,862.5
1,47,48,503.2
LU/TL
0.12
0.46
0.55
0.36
Agricultural land (AL)
4,80,171.9
19,55,836.6
15,74,548.1
40,10,556.6
LU/AL
1.3
1.45
1.19
1.33
Rangelands (RL)(ha)
10,82,232.0
5,45,334.9
74,100.9
17,01,607.8
LU/RL
0.58
5.18
25.29
3.13
Carrying capacity of rangelands
0.96
0.8
0.68
0.90
Forest land (FL)
14,87,790.1
32,15,969.6
16,02,683.3
63,06,443.0
LU/FL
0.42
0.88
1.17
0.84
Carrying capacity of forest
0.93
0.85
0.68
0.82
Source: Livestock Population: [22] CBS, 2207; Agricultural, rangeland, forest land: [1] LRMP, 1988.

Most of the rangelands are over stocked beyond its carrying capacity and are severely grazed out. The stocking rate on agricultural land is probably highest in the world. Based on standard livestock unit (LU: 400 kg body weight [23] Rajbhandary, HB and Shah SG). Overall stocking rate on total land area is 0.36 LU per ha of total land. Similarly, on agricultural land the stocking rate is 1.33. The stocking rate is highest in Middle belt compared to Southern and Northern belt. Theoretical calculation of the stocking rate reveals that compared to the total landmass of Nepal and/or agricultural land only the stocking rate is relatively high on rangelands resources. Mean stocking rate is 3.1 LU per ha of rangelands. As the rangelands in the Southern belt is minimal the stocking rate is very high i.e. 25.3 LU.

Compared to the stocking rate the carrying capacity of these grazing areas are very low. Overall stocking rate on rangelands resources is 3.5 times high. In the Middle belt the stocking rate is over 37 times high. Contrary to the Southern and Middle belt the stocking rate in Northern belt is less than carrying capacity. It is mainly due to the abundance of rangelands and low population of livestock.

The differences in the estimates of the carrying capacity might be due to the measures used to quantify the carrying capacity. However, all the data presented above are estimates and most of the data represents certain regions only. The relatively high carrying capacity of the grazing areas reported by Shrestha et al might be due to good management because the grazing lands were privately owned.

6.0 Rangelands Management
Indigenous techniques for the rangelands management is exist in Nepal but the techniques are not keeping pace with the increased livestock population and by the closure of Tibetan rangelands for Nepalese migratory herds.

In the traditional system of rangelands management only resting and burning have been adopted. However, due to high grazing pressure and lack of responsibility for managing the community pastures, most of the rangelands are in deterioration conditions. The rangelands could be more productive by their judicious utilization through proper management.

6.1 Range improvements: Till now only 0.5 % of the total grazing lands of the high altitude districts have been improved [20; 21] 2[Pande, 1994; Pande 1997). The regular pasture improvement programmes should be continued to cover much more areas of indigenous rangelands.

6.1.1 Incorporation of legume into the existing sward: Legume components in the natural rangelands of Nepal are negligible. Incorporation of the legume such as clover in the natural rangelands, not only increase the productivity and the quality of the pastures by supplying more DM and improving the nutritional quality but also improves the soil fertility level through fixing atmospheric nitrogen. Archer reported that by broadcasting white clover into the natural grazing areas of Himalayan region DM production increased by three folds compared to the existing productivity level [6] Archer 1990.
6.1.2 Improvement of Physical Facilities: Most of the rangelands are difficult and inaccessible due to the lack of proper trails, bridges. The mule trails and bridges on river, rivulet should be constructed. Drinking water tank should be erected to facilitate the drinking water to the livestock.

6.1.2.1 Drinking water facilities: The source of water for drinking to the grazing herds is only streams or lakes in Nepal. There are no artificial facilities provided for the stocks especially at high altitude regions of Nepal. Most of these resources are located far from the grazing grounds. Most of the vegetation near the watering source is severely grazed and degraded. An optimum distribution of the watering points over the rangelands helps in proper utilization of vegetation. Under the Northern Belt Pasture Development Programme over 41 drinking water facilities were constructed during the project period.

6.1.2.2 Provision of Mule trails and Bridges: The rangelands should be easily accessible by the grazing stock. There should be proper trails for easy access and bridges to cross the river and rivulets. Most of the rangelands are located at high altitude regions, which are inaccessible due to the lack of trail and bridges to cross the river/rivulets. It is estimated that over 40 percent of the rangelands of high altitude regions are inaccessible. Under the Northern Belt Pasture Development Program over 39 mule trails have been constructed during the project periods.

6.1.2.3 Clearing of undesirable bushes: The removal of undesirable and non-palatable species from rangelands is the most important step towards range improvements. Most of the rangelands are fully covered with undesirable species such as Eupatorium spp. Eradication of such bushes and weeds provides a chance for the desirable species to flourish and utilize the available nutrients and moisture. The bush free rangelands provided five times more fodder compared to the bushy rangelands. If the area is located on a slope the bushes and the shrubs should not be exposed at once. Otherwise the topsoil will be washed away due to increased run off. The undesirable shrubs of the sloppy areas should be removed in strip gradually. In the steppe region such as Mustang the native bushes should be protected as much as possible. They are the major source for moisture conservation in this arid zone. Basnyat recommended that such bushes should be protected and the improved pasture seed should be sown inside the bushes [13] Basnyat (1988).

6.1.3 Opening new Rangelands/Use of unutilised community pasture areas: Most of the accessible grazing areas at high altitude region are over exploited and most of the palatable species are detriment. The dominant species are unpalatable grasses and weeds. Approximately 42 % of the grazing areas are still unutilised, due to steepness and unavailability of drinking water. There is an immediate need to open these pasturelands.

6.1.4 Use of Fertilization: Application of fertilizer in the existing pastures is the effective and quick means to improve the productivity and the vegetational composition of the natural rangelands. But in the Nepalese contest to use fertilizer especially in pastures will be highly costly and uneconomical. Most of the rangelands of Nepal are low in Nitrogen fertilizer. By the use of Nitrogen fertilizer the productivity of the grasses species could be tripled. Grasses are more responsive to fertilizer application compared to the legumes or forbs. For legume species inoculation and the use of Phosphatic fertilizer is recommended. However, the compost and the dung’s should be used to increase the productivity of the pastures. There is a lack of systematic study to evaluate the increased productivity of the native pastures by the use of fertilizers in the natural conditions. However, the trial conducted in the cultivated condition using exotic as well as native species revealed the good response of fertilizer to the production of the fodder. Pandey et al (1990) found that by the use of FYM @ 8 mt/ha as a basal dose to Rye grass and Cocksfoot cultivars at Jiri condition the fodder yield was increased by 20 % compared to the non fertilized conditions. Similarly, tiller density and the plant height were also increased due to manuring [19] Pandey et al (1990) (Table 10.).

Table 10: Effects of FYM on DM production and tiller density
Description
Treatment
Ruanui (1)
Khumal (1)*
Wana (2)*
Curie (2)*
DM yield (mt/ha)
FYM, 8mt/ha
12.5
7.4
6.5
3.6
FYM, 0
10.1
6.5
5.9
2.6
Plant Den city tiller/sq m
FYM, 8mt/ha
4512
1632
2608
1632
FYM, 0
4192
1360
2000
1056
Plant height(cm)
FYM, 8mt/ha
26.5
28.9
15.8
14.1
FYM, 0
21.9
27.9
11.9
10.5
Note: 1= Cultivars of Lolium perenne; 2= Cultivars of Dactylis glomerata
Source: Adapted from [19] Pandey et al (1990)

6.1.5 Use of Irrigation: Moisture is the major limiting factor for the better establishment as well as the performance of the natural vegetation especially of the herbaceous species. Irrigation of the rangelands could improve the productivity. The DM production of the Medicago falcata in the irrigated orchard in Mustang districts was found 2494 kg DM/ha compared to 93 kg DM/ha in the open rain-fed grazing lands at the altitude of 3610 m [14] (Kandel et al. (1988).

6.2 Adoption of proper grazing management:
Livestock is the core factor to the rangeland management. The major cause of poor conditions of pastures is due to overstocked livestock and its husbandry system. There is a lack of proper grazing management practices adopted by the farmers and/or at government level. Most of the newly established pastures are over grazed and are in deteriorating conditions. Most of the palatable species fail to bear the seeds and ultimately eliminated from the grazing lands. Following practices should be used for proper grazing management:

6.2.1 Stall feeding: Stall feeding should be encouraged. The traditionally practised “cut and carry" method should be extensively carried out for the better use of fodder. This would also allow the opportunity to the plants to regenerate and therefore permits continued sustained production. Stall feeding practices control the overgrazing of natural feed resources as well as it increases the collection of dung’s and urine which ultimately improves the soil fertility status of soil. However, in Nepalese conditions where feed deficits is a major problem, the stall fed animals may not get the adequate feed and suffers more with mal nutrition and starvation compared in scavenger grazing and can pick up anything edible.

6.2.2 Closing of the rangelands from the grazing animals: Due to the continuous grazing of the natural pastures not only lowered the productivity but also caused the lower plant density per unit of lands. Closing the rangeland for grazing animals could provide the opportunity for natural seeding and propagation. However, it requires long period. The practice is quite useful and productive however, it could not be implemented under Northern Belt Pasture Development Programme (NBPDP) due to the lack of people's participation. By providing resting or closing of the natural grazing areas through fencing the relative plant density and the productivity of the pastures increased significantly. For example in the Ghami Village Alt 3740 m the biomass production in the open grazing lands was 76.8 kg DM/ha whereas DM production within the fenced area was 158.0 kg/ha. The major plant species were Pennisetum, Chrysopogon, Caragana spp and others ([14] Kandel et al. 1988). Similarly, Singh et al. reported that within the three months period of time in Jumla areas alt 2800 masl the total number of plant count was increased by 65 % in the open grazing lands. The total number of plant was 1291 in the open area where as in the caged conditions the total plant count was 1976 [11] (Singh et al, 1990) . Similarly the green matter yield was increased by 76 percent (Table 11).

Table 11: Plant species, plant # and GM yield in caged and uncaged conditions
Description
Caged
Uncaged
Total plant species
32
24
Total number of plant
1976
1291
Green matter yield (mt/ha)
4.9
3.7
Source: 11] (Singh et al, 1990)

Grazing or browsing by livestock directly effects on species composition and productivity of the grassland vegetation. Livestock are selective grazier; exhibit preferences for different types of plants for their food [24; 25] (Pande, 1990; 1991). Some species are very palatable and selectively grazed out such as pasture legumes. When the grazing pressure is increased or there is a lack of good pasture on the sites, livestock graze on less palatable species. At the higher grazing pressure, the plants are heavily defoliated which could be detrimental to the plant survival. Most of the rangelands available in Nepal are under heavy grazing pressure, and are over grazed, deteriorated conditions and are dominated with unwanted species and weeds. Closing of the rangelands to preserve the plant diversity as well as the productivity is the effective means [27] Pariyar, 1990. Study conducted at Jumla revealed that the number of plant species and plant cover as well as biomass production was higher at the closed site compared to the open site. Similarly when the rangeland was closed for a long period resulted in the increase in number of plant species and fodder yield [26] Morrison, 1991. (Table 12).

Table 12: Effect of Long Term Closure on Plant species and Fodder Yield
Description
No. of Plant Species
Fodder Yield (mt DM/ha)
Open Grasslands
13
0.97
Two years closure
22
3.83
Five years closure
26
4.43
Long term closure
38
5.61
Source: Adapted from [26] Morrison, 1991.

Due to browsing most of the new seedling of plant and shrubs may inhibit growth and die. Livestock also effects on environment degradation and loss of bio diversity through trampling on ground and camping.

7.0 Major challenges on rangeland development/management:
Ownership/Users’ right on rangelands? Traditionally the rangelands were/have been under the control of some “elites” and were/have been collecting grazing fees “Kharchauri” from the herders. Since the emergence of the community forestry concept and the formation of FUGs in most of the VDCs the “Users Right” has been transferred to the FUGs, that created some conflict/confusion e.g. in Bagam/Chhagam ([28] Pande, 2005); [29] Miller, D.J. 1993
Basic information on rangelands? The basic information on the rangelands is virtually, nil e.g. altitudes, aspects, area, pasture composition, biomass production, seasonality of growth and utilisation). Moreover, traditionally the community managed rangelands are recognised by its traditional names and nominal signs e.g. river, hills, lake etc rather than a physical boundary, overlap of the area, boundaries is quite common, which may cause conflict between the users as well as create management problems
Responsibility of the rangelands management? Most of rangelands are over utilised due to continuous grazing and are in deteriorating conditions. The pasturelands are dominated with unwanted weeds and poisonous bushes. It is estimated that the accessible pasturelands are considered to produce only 25 per cent of its potential.
Deteriorating conditions of associated forests: Oak tree foliage is sole diet for the livestock especially during winter season. Most of the oak trees are heavily lopped out and ceased the ability of reproduction. To promote regeneration of oak trees through protection of mother plants has initiated but its impact and its success is not apparent. Similarly, extensive rhododendron forest especially above 3,000 m altitude has been burned annually to expand the pasturelands and to induce faster growth of pastures, which threatens the existing of dwarf rhododendron forest as well as existing of flora and fauna.
Infrastructural facilities: In most of the community pasturelands the infrastructure facilities e.g. drinking water, sheds for herders and young animals, conditions of trail, condition of bridges in river/rivulets is very poor. Moreover, every year herder cuts young trees to renovate their sheds as well as for burning/cooking their meals, which deteriorates the forest resources.
Remoteness of the Rangelands area: The Himalayan regions (above 2,000 masl) where the extensive rangelands are found, are characterized by higher degradation of natural resources, low agricultural productivity, poverty driven migration, limited education, poor health care facilities and less income generation opportunities. These areas are lagged behind in terms of accessibility, available resources, infrastructures & physical facilities.
Provision/use of grazing fees: Traditionally the community pasturelands were/have been under the control of some “elites” and were/have been collecting “grazing fees” locally called “Kharchauri” from the herders. Since the emergence of the community forestry (CF) concept and the formation of Forest Users Group (FUG) in most of the Village Development Committees the “Users Right” has been transferred to the FUGs that created some conflict/confusion.
Is it possible to manipulate/extend pasture utilisation period? : Most of rangelands above 3,000 masl are utilised by the migratory herds during summer (June to August) only though the stay could be stretched up to September until the snow fall commence. Rest of the period the herds remain in lower/winter pastures grazing on oak forest at around 2,000 m altitude. Length of the stay of the herds directly correlated with utilisation pattern; longer the stay of herds in lower/winter pastures maximal the rate of utilisation/deterioration of the oak forest. Interventions need to explore the ways to prolong the stay/ utilisation period of upper/high altitude pastures aiming to minimise the additional pressure in winter pasture/oak forest?
Co-relation between stocking rate vs carrying capacity? The number of livestock tends to more compare to its carrying capacity. Reduction in herd size by increasing the productivity of individual animal is a common solution proposed by the so-called planner (?) (As the livestock is a status symbol in rural society and seems continued in near future? So, whether try to reduce the number of herd size or should try to improve the forage supply situation to match the demand in a sustainable manner?)
Livestock types and numbers: The major livestock in these areas are cattle, Yak, Chauri, sheep, goats and other animals. The livestock are raised under migratory systems. The number of livestock is beyond the carrying capacity of rangelands. On the other hand types of livestock are also disproportionate e.g. the number of goat population far more than sheep and the goats are considered as a destroyer of the vegetation. Most of the herders’ keep only breeding male (to minimise cost of rearing of the stud and avoid unnecessary competition/fighting between the males). Moreover, the breeding male selected from the same progeny of the same parental stock in all types of animals except Yaks. Consequently, the genetic potentiality of the herds deteriorates and the performance of the animals in terms of milk and growth decreases/decreasing.
Reasonable herd size: Most of the herders are reluctant to reduce the herd size; herders are concerned more about quantity rather then quality; keeping large herd reduces the risk of failure in livestock rearing business; as the incidence of diseases and casualty of animals is high and animals are low producing, keeping large herds minimise the risk. The average size of “Goth” (Herd) in migratory systems ranges from 200-300 heads of animals only comprising 4-6 farmers/households; larger herds are unmanageable and incidence during transferring of “Goth” and grazing could be fatal: as the mule trails are too narrow for travelling the larger herds). So, there is restriction also to from the management point.
Fate of the Chauri calves/cruelty of animals: Most of new born Chauri calves are forced to death (starved and/or over feeding of whey) - within first week of their age, mainly to save the milk yield as well as the hybrid-born calves are less important in terms of milk production .
Differed grazing behaviours of animals: During the migratory process the sheep/goats herds first moves toward alpine pastures earlier than Chauri. The grazing behaviour of these animals varies with each other and ability to utilise the available feed resources also differ among them. For example, goats prefer browsing than grazing compared to either sheep or cattle, which could affect the pasture management.
Conventional breeding practices/one stud services: Most of the herders’ keep only breeding male (to minimise cost of rearing of the stud and avoid unnecessary competition/fighting between the males). Moreover, the breeding male selected from the same progeny of the same parental stock in all types of animals except Yaks. Consequently, the genetic potentiality of the herds deteriorates and the performance of the animals in terms of milk and growth decreases/decreasing.
Community Awareness: Awareness towards the improved forage cultivation practices has been created need to be expended in wider scale to mitigate the shortage feeds and fodder and to save the oak forest.
· Support Services: Veterinary, credit services: Most of community people have less access to veterinary services, credit facilities, cold storage/chilling centres etc.
Extension/expansion of forage cultivation practices: Awareness towards the improved forage cultivation practices have been created, which needs to be expended in wider scale to mitigate the shortage feeds and fodder and to save the oak forest.
· Training and education: The training peoples either farmers or staff lack proper training in pasture production and livestock management. iv) Technical staff: There is a shortage of technical staff in the field of pasture and fodder development. Whatever the staff are available they are reluctant to serve in remote district.
Product Diversification: So far, Chauri are mainly used for milk and sheep/goats for meat but most of the farmer’s milch sheep and goats and consume locally and/or convert into curd or ghee (generally not for sale and no market outside). Most of the unwanted species/ weeds for herders could have economic value e.g. Androsace species.
Pollution/environmental degradations: In Himalayan regions scattered piece of bottles, plastic bags and others are quite common.
Role and status of women and school going kids involved in livestock farming: Most of the work related to milching, “Chhurpi” making are done by women (interesting, milking Chauri is the prime job of women only). Most of the time young girls/women compelled to live alone in an isolated shed with the animals, and school going kids also seen frequently with chauri herds
Outward migration: Most of the working youth are abandoning the homestead, sometimes with whole family members either in Kathmandu and/or India/Overseas to explore the alternative opportunities for more income.
Invasion of rangelands: Rangelands are national property utilized by community people since time immemorial. There is a lack of responsibility towards protection and conservation especially at community level. Occupation and invasion of rangelands for personal use has been increasing recently. The high altitude rangelands around the vicinity of the villages are gradually converted into the orchard and/or crop-fields. It was estimated that about 10 % of the community lands are annually used for this purpose in Jumla, Dolpa and Jajarkot districts. Some of the natural pasturelands and other common lands are invaded by some of the “elites” for the personal use; every body realise it but no body dares to oppose/raise voice against it?
People's participation: Peoples are reluctant to invest time and money for improvement of government/ community rangelands even for their own use.
Research and extension: There is a lack of research work on native pasture production and management system especially in Northern belt region. Similarly, diversified use of unwanted species/weeds of community pasturelands as most of the unwanted species/ weeds for herders could have economic value e.g. Androsace species.
Whether to conserve the native pasture species and/or replace by exotic? The native pasture species though hardy in nature but are lower in terms of DM yield, feed value and persists for shorter period compared to the exotic species. One the other hand, introduction of exotic species could be a threat to the bio-diversity conservation (e.g. white clover found all over the native pasturelands up to 3000m). Moreover, testing of exotic genetic materials has been initiated into the native pasturelands at different zone
Government rules and regulations: Government rules regulations of the ownership and renovation/management of natural pasturelands are conflicting/ confusing between and within the organisations e.g. National Parks/ Wildlife Reserves in Buffer Zone.
High cost of development: Improvements of rangelands are expensive and time-consuming programme. Due to lack of adequate budget and resources pasture improvement activities are low prioritised under GON programme.
Recycling of manures: The heaps of manures found close to the sheds in the alpine pasturelands and most of its nutrients go unutilised
Existence of oak forest threatened: Oak foliage is sole diet for the livestock especially during winter season. Most of the oak trees are heavily lopped out and ceased the ability of reproduction. To promote regeneration of oak trees through protection of mother plants has initiated but its impact and its success is not apparent. Similarly, extensive rhododendron forest especially above 3,000 m altitude has been burned annually to expand the pasturelands and to induce faster growth of pastures, which threatens the existing of dwarf rhododendron forest as well as existing of flora and fauna.
Feed/nutritive value of forage: The information on feed value of native pastures and browse foliage is lacking. Some of the plants considered to contain anti-nutritional factors e.g. presence of tannins in oak foliage
Traditional vs. improved livestock management practices: The traditional migratory system of livestock farming is becoming less attractive due to the shortage of feeds/fodder, high cost of production, hardship, lack of labour force etc. The profit margin or return of the investments especially in case of Chauri production is very low. The potential Chauri farmers are lured towards the money lending business rather than Chauris farming by them. To make the Chauri farming occupation more attractive? Is a challenge? Some of the dairy farmers of have developed a unique strategy to escape from the dry buffaloes (non-lactating stage), they sale the dry animal (to escape from the cost to rearing until the next parturition), and purchase new lactating buffalo to continue their dairy business as most of the dry buffaloes go to meat market and thus shortage of dairy buffaloes remains chronic problem (e.g. a case seen in Kabhrepalanchok district).
Supply/production of planting materials (seeds, saplings etc): Promotion of on-farm forage production and the renovation of the native pasturelands requires/demand a huge quantity of planting materials, but the domestic production is limited

8. Conclusion/Summary: The livelihood of the high Himalayan people depends of livestock farming. The acute shortage of pasturing are compelling the local especially Sherpa people to abandon the traditional systems of agriculture and forced to engage on alternative options of livelihoods such as tourism and work as a seasonal porter and/or migrate to other countries such as India and/or overseas. The deteriorating situations of the rangelands have created depletion of environment conservation, loss of biodiversity, threat to the rear wildlife and affect on major watershed areas of the southern Asia. The closure of Tibetan pasturelands for Nepalese herds and termination of government implemented northern belt pastureland improvement programmes have worsen the situation. Immediate attention is needed to improve the pasture production, productivity and conservation of native animals in the Himalayan regions of Nepal with strong people's participation.

9. References:
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[22] CBS, Statistical Pocket Book Nepal, 2007. Central Bureau of Statistics, Government of Nepal, 2007.
[23] Rajbhandary, HB and Shah SG, Trends Projection of Livestock Production the Hills of Nepal. Seminar on Nepal Experience in Hill Agriculture Development, HMG, Nepal 1981.
[24] Pande, R.S. 1990: Feed value of tagasaste (Chamaecytisus palmensis) for goats and preferential browsing activities by goats and sheep in multi species shrub/pasture conditions. M.AgrSc, Thesis, Massey University, New Zealand.
[25] Pande, R.S. 1991: Role of browse shrub/trees as animal feed in Nepal. Proceedings of the First National Animal Science Convention, Jan 14-15, 1991, Kathmandu.
[26] Morrison, J. 1991. Himalayan Pasture and Fodder Research Network Project: Projects Findngs and Recommendations, .RAS 79/121, FAO, Rome.
[27] Pariyar, D. 1990. Fodder and pasture seed requirement and supply arrangements. Proceedings of Second National Seed Seminar, March 20-22, 1990, Kathmandu. Ministry of Agriculture, National Seed Board, Kathmandu.
[28] Pande, RS: “Pro-poor Community Forage Production Programme in the Nepal Australia Community Resource Management and Livelihoods Project, Nepal” Proceedings of the Workshop on Fodder Oats, Fodder Technology Packages and Small Farm Income Generation. TCP/NEP/2901-Capacity Building for Fodder Oat Technologies in Nepal and sixth meeting of the Temperate Asia Pasture and Fodder Network, FAO 8-11 March 2005.
[29] Miller, D.J. 1993. Grazing lands in the Nepal Himalaya: present and Potential Economic Returns to Range livestock Production in High Elevation Areas. Draft Final Report, USAID, Kathmandu.

10. Acknowledgement:
The author would like to acknowledge Dr David hemming (TL, Biotech), CABI organisation for his continual encouragement as well as valuable comments to prepare this review in the present form.

2011-08-11T03:40:00.001-07:00

Geography, People/Population and Administrative Division of Nepal

2007-05-30T01:31:00.000-07:00

Basic Information on Nepal
By: Rameshwar Singh Pande, 2007

1.1 Geography:

Nepal is a landlocked multiethnic, multilingual, multi-religious country situated in the lap of the Mount Everest, between India and China. The total land area is 147181 sq km (56136 sq mile). It has in rectangular shape, stretches northwest to southeast between latitude 26o22 N and 30o27 N and the longitude are between 80o4 E and 88o12 E. There is a great variation in the climatic and ecological zone within a short distance of its surface area. It is extending about 885 km in east west and 193 km (130-240 km) wide from north south. Nepal has an extreme range of altitude which ranging from 60 m to the height 8,848-m of Mount Everest.

1.2 Administrative divisions:

Nepal has been divided into five development regions, 14 zones, 75 districts, 58 municipalities and 3,913 Village Development Committees (VDCs) for administrative purpose. About 12 percent of the population live in urban areas. Out of total districts mountains comprise 16 districts, Hills 39 and Terai 20 districts (Annex - 2.1). The grouping of the districts is primarily based on administrative purpose rather than ecology and/or altitudional range.

1.2.1 Cities:
Capital--Kathmandu municipality (5 districts) (pop. 1.5 million).
• Other cities-
o Biratnagar,
o Patan,
o Pokhara,
o Birganj,
o Dharan,
o Nepalganj.

1.3 People & Population:
1.3.1 The peopleNoun--Nepali (sing.) or Nepalese (plural). Adjective--Nepalese or Nepali.

On the lap of the southern slopes of the Himalayan Mountains, the Kingdom of Nepal is as ethnically diverse as its terrain of fertile plains, broad valleys, and the highest mountain peaks in the world. The Nepalese are descendants of three major migrations from India, Tibet, and central Asia. Among the earliest inhabitants were the Newars of the Kathmandu Valley and aboriginal Tharus in the southern Terai region. The ancestors of the Brahman and Chetri caste groups came from India, while other ethnic groups trace their origins to central Asia and Tibet, including the Gurungs and Magars in the west, Rais and Limbus in the east, and Sherpas and Bhotias in the north.
In the Terai, a part of the Ganges Basin with 20% of Nepal’s land, much of the population is physically and culturally similar to the Indo-Aryan people of northern India. People of Indo-Aryan and Mongoloid stock live in the hill region. The mountainous highlands are sparsely populated. The Kathmandu Valley, in the middle hill region, constitutes a small fraction of the nation's area but is the most densely populated, with almost 7.4% of the population.
Religion is important in Nepal--The Kathmandu Valley alone has more than 2,700 religious shrines. Nepal is about 81% Hindu. The constitution describes the country as a "Hindu Kingdom," although it does not establish Hinduism as the state religion. Buddhists account for about 11% of the population. Buddhist and Hindu shrines and festivals are respected and celebrated by all. Nepal also has small Muslim and Christian minorities. Certain animistic practices of old indigenous religions survive.
Nepali is the official language, although a dozen different languages and about 30 major dialects are spoken throughout the country. Derived from Sanskrit, Nepali is related to the Indian language, Hindi, and is spoken by about 90% of the population. Many Nepalese in government and business also speak English.

1.3.2 Population:

The estimated population of the country is 24797059, in which male is 1,24,06,222 and female is 1,23,90837 (CBS, 2004). The people are mainly of two-type a) Tibeto- Burman origin and b) Indo-Nepalese origin. These people are again divided into various ethnic group, caste, languages and religion. The Tibeto-Burman groups are mainly settled in mountains and Himalayan regions along the northern boarder. The Indo-Nepalese people are the major ethnic groups settled in southern Terai and Middle Hills.

Annual growth rate: 2.25%. Population breakdown/distribution: Rural (85.8%); female (50.1%); in the southern Terai region (49.1%); in the hills (49.1 %); in the mountains (7%). (October 15, 2005 census update by UNFPA)

1.3.3 Ethnic groups:

Nepal comprises various cast and ethnicity. The major casts are , there are Brahman, Chetri, Newar, Gurung, Magar, Tamang, Rai, Limbu, Sherpa, Tharu, and others.
There are over 64 cast/ethnic groups, which are using over 100 dialects as a mother tongue. For the convenience and based on ecology, socio-economy and settlement of the ethnic groups of the country, Nepal has been divided into three belts such as:
• Northern Belt (Mountains including high Himalayan region running along the Tibetan (China) boarder,
• Southern Belt (Terai , plain lands in foothills running along the Indian boarder, and
• Middle Belt (Hills, situated in between northern and southern region.

1.3.4 Religions:

Hinduism (80.6%), Buddhism (10.7%), Islam (4.2%), and others (4.2%).
Languages: Nepali and more than 12 others.

1.4 Education:

Years compulsory--0. Attendance--primary 80.4%, secondary 20%. Literacy--53.7% (65.1% male, 42.5% female).

1.5 Health:

Infant mortality rate--61/1,000 (in 2005). Life expectancy--61.8 years (male), 62.5 years (female).

2.0 Ecological and Socio-economic belt

The terrain: Flat and fertile in the southern Terai region; terraced cultivation and swiftly flowing mountain rivers in the central hills; and the high Himalayas in the north. Eight of the world's ten highest peaks are in Nepal. Kathmandu, the capital, is in a broad valley at 1,310 meters (4,300 ft.) elevation. These area has been divided into three major ecological zones.

2.1 Northern belt- Himal

The Northern belt (Mountains) is a high altitude Himalayas running along the Tibetan boarder. There is no clear-cut boundary between Middle hills and the main Himalayas. The Hills with an elevation ranges from 2,200 – 4,000 m considered as Mountains and the higher elevation region above this ranges is considered as Himal. The Northern belt comprises 16 districts (Annex -2.1) and the total land area occupy is about 35 percent (5186,181 ha) of Nepal. Out of the total land available in Northern belt high peaks, steep slopes, narrow valleys, rivers and other unutilised lands occupy over 41 percent. Agricultural land is only 9 percent. Over 20 percent of the land categorised as rangelands and 24 percent is under forest in this belt.

The total population in the Northern belt is only 8 percent of Nepal. The climate ranges from temperate to alpine with considerable variation in micro-environments especially in the Trans-Himalayan regions mainly due to rugged topography, varying elevation, aspects, steepness of slope and solar radiation. The farming has been done in the terrace hill slopes. Farms are small and subsistence type. Soil is of low to medium fertility level. It also contains intensive terraces for agricultural, which runs from top to bottom. Such a farming system is found to be practised up to elevation of 4,200 m. At higher altitude due to severe cold and short growing season, only one crop can be taken a year.

The north of the Annapurna and Dhaulagiri Himal has an arid, rain shadow treeless plateau, which is considered, as steppe region. The altitude ranges from 3,000 m and above. This region receives rainfall less than 200 mm a year. Crop cultivation is done in the lower region along the river terraces. Alpine rangelands are the dominant features of this belt.

Due to the limitations of the crop cultivation and extreme agro-climatic factor livestock play a crucial role in this belt. Cropping is not sufficient to meet the needs of households. The size of landholding is small and the average number of livestock per farm is about 6.8. Cropping generally confined to a single crop. The common cropping patterns are potato, buckwheat, and naked barley. In the lower elevation rice-barley is also grown. The cropping intensity is relatively low i.e. 110 percent only.

In high Himal, beyond 4,000 m crop cultivation is not possible due to severe cold. Trans-humance livestock production systems practised in this region. Large herds of Yak, Chauris and sheep and mountain goats graze on alpine rangelands during the summer season.

2.2 Southern belt- Terai

The Southern belt (Terai) is a long narrow strip of fertile alluvial land stretching east-west direction along the Indian boarder of Nepal. Its total length is approximately 880 km and about 50 km wide. Elevation ranges from 60 m up to 1,000 m. Southern belt comprises 20 districts (Annex -2.1). It occupy 23 percent (3409,863 ha) of the total land area in which 46 percent is agricultural land, 45.5 percent is under forest 2.2 percent grazing and rest others. The southern belt is highly populated area of Nepal, supporting about 47 percent of the total population.

The Southern belt has a tropical to humid subtropical climate with rainfall over 1917 mm per annum. Most of the rain occurs during monsoon (June to September). The major cultivable land is found in river terraces and the alluvial valleys.

Livestock is closely related with the farming system in this belt. The major livestock are buffalo, cattle and goats. Livestock mainly used for draft power, milk and meat production and are major sources of cash income. It is estimated that over 90 percent of the tillage work have been done by bullocks. In this belt, farming systems are predominantly rice based, which is grown during the monsoon season. During the winter major crops are wheat, mustard and other crops such as maize, tobacco, chickpea, lentil, finger millet and forage crops like oat and berseem are being cultivated in recent decades. The average cropping intensity is 149 percent. Although the crop yields are low, the total production is usually sufficient to meet the farmer’s need. Some surplus food grains are exported to the other part of the country and outside.

Rangelands are limited in this belt and confined within the national park areas. Livestock fed on crop residues and grain by-products. Stall feeding and grazing on fallow land and roadsides are common. Most of the dung is used for compost making. In recent decades due to the shortage of fuel-wood, large portion of dung's are utilised for cooking. Forest provides fodder and grazing to livestock and fuel-wood in the foothills and encroached areas in Southern belt.

2.3 Middle: Hills

The Middle hills are low lying and tectonic valley, lie between Northern and Southern belt. It is a 40-60 km wide running along the length of the country parallel to the Himalayan range. It consist high ridges and steep valleys with numerous streams and rivers. The elevation ranges from 800 – 2,400 metre. The climate is subtropical with variable microenvironments. The farming has been done in the terrace hill slopes. Farms are small and subsistence types. Soil is of low to medium fertility level.

This belt is densely populated. Middle hills occupy 39 districts, and consists about 41 percent (6152,460 ha) of the total land area in which 32 percent is agricultural land, 45 percent is forests, 8.9 percent is under rangelands and rest others. Mid hills support 45 percent of the total population.

Livestock play a crucial role in this belt. The major ruminants are cattle, buffaloes, goats and sheep. The number of livestock per household is high i.e. 6.3. Much of the cultivated land in this belt is terraced form. The major cropping pattern is maize based followed by finger millet or mustard. In the low land especially in the river basins some rice cultivation is practised. Horticultural crops such as apple, pear citrus and vegetable production is becoming quite popular in recent years. Sub-tropical forage crops like oat, vetch, berseem, stylo, molasses and others are commonly grown in some dairy pocket areas in recent years.

2.4 Districts by Ecological belt of Nepal :•

Northern Himal (16 districts): Taplejung, Sankhuwasabha, Solukhumbu, Dolkha Sindhupalchauk, Rasuwa, Manang, Mustang, Dolpa Mugu, Humla, Jumla, Kalikot, Bajura, Bajhang, Darchula,
• Southern Terai (20 districts): Jhapa, Morang, Sunsari, Saptari, Siraha, Dhanusha, Mahottari, Sarlahi, Rautahat, Bara, Parsa, Chitwan, Nawalparasi, Rupandehi, Kapilbastu, Dang, Banke, Bardia, Kailali, Kanchanpur
• Middle hills (39 districts): Panchathar, Ilam, Terthum, Dhankuta, Bhojpur, Khotang, Okhaldhunga, Udayapur, Ramechhap, Sindhuli, Kavre, Bhaktapur, Lalitpur, Kathmandu, Nuwakot, Dhading, Makawanpur, Gorkha, Lamjung, Tanahu, Kaski, Parwat, Syanja, Palpa, Myagdi, Baglung, Gulmi, Arghakhanchi, Rukum, Rolpa, Pyuthan, Salyan, Jajarkot, Dailekh, Surkhet, Achham, Doti, Baitadi, Dadeldhura

3.0 Main crops
• Northern Himal: Barley, millet, buck-wheat, potato
• Southern Terai: Paddy, wheat, maize, sugarcane
• Middle Hills: Maize, millet, paddy

4.0 Livestock type:•
Northern Himal: Yak, chauri, sheep, goats, mules
• Southern Terai: Cattle, buffaloes, goat, sheep
• Middle Hills: Buffalo, cattle, goats, sheep

5.0 Land use pattern of Nepal

The total land of Nepal comprises about 14.7 million ha. Out of the total land area agricultural land occupy approximately 27 percent. All the agricultural land is not used under crop cultivation, it is estimated that about 20 percent of the total land is under cropping. Approx. 11.5 percent total land area is occupied by rangelands. Most of the rangelands are located in northern belt. About 38.1 percent of the land is under forests and about 4.7 under shrub and burn plantation. The land use pattern is rapidly changing; increasing pressure of human as well as livestock is the major factor for its manipulation.

5.1 Land Use pattern by ecological belts (ha):•
Agricultural land – 4010557 ha (northern 480172, southern- 1574548 and Hiils- 1955837);
• Rangeland -1701668 ha (northern 1082232, southern- 74101 and Hiils- 545335);
• Forest- 5605612 ha ( northern 1262299, southern- 1552256 and Hills- 2791057);
• Shrubs -689847 ha (northern 221914, southern- 45359 and Hills- 422574);
• Burn plantation- 10984 ha (northern -3577, southern- 5068 and Hills- 2339);
• Others- 2729837 ha (northern- 2135987, southern- 158531 and Hills- 43532).
• Total ha in northern HImal- 5186181ha (35.1%),
• Southern Terai- 3409863 ha (23.1%), and
• Middle Hills – 6152461 ha (41.7).

6. Climate:

Subtropical in the south to cool summers and severe winters in the northern mountains. The monsoon season is from June through September, during which showers occur almost every day, bringing 75 to 150 centimeters (30-60 in.) of rain.

7.0 Time zone:

The time zone is GMT+05:45. Nepal is 10 hours and 45 minutes ahead of Eastern Standard Time and does not observe daylight saving time.

Foreign relations and Defense of Nepal

2007-05-30T01:26:00.000-07:00

Foreign relations of Nepal

As a small, landlocked country wedged between two much larger and far stronger powers, Nepal seeks good relations with both India and China. Nepal formally established relations with China in 1956, and since then their bilateral relations have generally been very good. Because of strong cultural, religious, linguistic, and economic ties, Nepal's association with India traditionally has been close. India and Nepal restored trade relations in 1990 after a break caused by India's security concerns over Nepal's relations with China. A bilateral trade treaty signed in 1991 is renewed every five years. The most recent renewal on March 5, 2002 shall remain in force until March 5, 2007. However, a transit treaty with India, which allows Nepal to trade with other countries through the Calcutta/Haldia ports, expired on January 5, 2006. To allow time for the review of the seven-year-old transit treaty, India extended the treaty for a period of three months, until April 5, 2006.
Nepal has played an active role in the formation of the economic development-oriented South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and is the site of its secretariat. Nepal is also a signatory of the agreement on South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA), which came into force on January 1, 2006, and the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation Free Trade Agreement (BIMSTEC-FTA), which will come into force on July 1, 2006. On international issues, Nepal follows a non-aligned policy and often votes with the Non-Aligned Movement in the United Nations. Nepal participates in a number of UN specialized agencies and is a member of the World Trade Organization, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Colombo Plan, and Asian Development Bank.

DEFENSE

Nepal's military consists of the nearly 90,000-strong Royal Nepalese Army (RNA), which is organized into six divisions (Far Western, Mid Western, Western, Central, Eastern and the Valley Division) with separate Aviation, Parachute and Royal Palace Brigades as well as brigade-sized directorates encompassing air defense, artillery, engineers, logistics and signals which provide general support to the RNA. The King is the Supreme Commander of the RNA while the Prime Minister normally serves as Minister of Defense. General Pyar Jung Thapa is Chief of the Army Staff (COAS).
The RNA has contributed more than 45,000 peacekeepers to twenty-eight peacekeeping missions such as the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL), the UN Protection Force (UNPROFOR) in the Former Yugoslavia, the UN Operational Mission in Somalia II (UNOSOMII), the UN Mission in Haiti (UNMIH), and the UN Mission of Support in East Timor (UNTAET). While concurrently fighting a Maoist insurgency within Nepal, RNA units are also presently serving in the UN Mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL), the UN Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC), and the UN Mission in Haiti (MINUSTOH), among others. Approximately 3,400 of the world-famous Nepalese Gurkha forces serve in the British Army and 40,000 serve in the Indian Army.
The U.S. Pacific Command (USPACOM) coordinates U.S. military engagement and security assistance with Nepal through the Office of Defense Cooperation. U.S. military assistance to the RNA has consisted of $21.95 million in grant Foreign Military Financing (FMF) since 2002, annual professional and technical training provided under the International Military Education and Training Program (IMET) grant ($650,000 in FY05), additional training provided under the Counter Terrorism (CT) Fellowship ($200,000 for FY04), and approximately $2 million of Enhanced International Peacekeeping Capabilities (EIPC) funding to increase the pool of international peacekeepers and promote interoperability. Many RNA officers attend U.S. military schools, including the U.S. Army War College, the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College (CGSC), and various conferences and seminars such as those provided by the National Defense University (NDU) and the Asia Pacific Center for Strategic Studies (APCSS).

History and political events of Nepal

2007-05-30T01:17:00.000-07:00

Early History
Modern Nepal was created in the latter half of the 18th century when Prithvi Narayan Shah, the ruler of the small principality of Gorkha, formed a unified country from a number of independent hill states. The country was frequently called the Gorkha Kingdom, the source of the term "Gurkha" used for Nepali soldiers.
After 1800, the heirs of Prithvi Narayan Shah proved unable to maintain firm political control over Nepal. A period of internal turmoil followed, heightened by Nepal's defeat in a war with the British from 1814 to 1816. Stability was restored after 1846 when the Rana family gained power, entrenched itself through hereditary prime ministers, and reduced the monarch to a figurehead. The Rana regime, a tightly centralized autocracy, pursued a policy of isolating Nepal from external influences. This policy helped Nepal maintain its national independence during the colonial era, but also impeded the country's economic development.

In 1950, King Tribhuvan, a direct descendant of Prithvi Narayan Shah, fled his "palace prison" to newly independent India, touching off an armed revolt against the Rana administration. This allowed the return of the Shah family to power and, eventually, the appointment of a non-Rana prime minister. A period of quasi-constitutional rule followed, during which the monarch, assisted by the leaders of fledgling political parties, governed the country. During the 1950s, efforts were made to frame a constitution for Nepal that would establish a representative form of government, based on a British model.

Democratic Developments

In early 1959, King Mahendra issued a new constitution and the first democratic elections for a national assembly were held. The Nepali Congress Party, a moderate socialist group, gained a substantial victory in the election. Its leader, B.P. Koirala, formed a government and served as Prime Minister.
Declaring parliamentary democracy a failure eighteen months later, King Mahendra dismissed the Koirala government and promulgated a new constitution on December 16, 1962. The new constitution established a "partyless" system of panchayats (councils), which King Mahendra considered to be a democratic form of government closer to Nepalese traditions. As a hierarchical structure progressing from village assemblies to a Rastriya Panchayat (National Parliament), the panchayat system enshrined the absolute power of the monarchy and kept the King as head of state with sole authority over all governmental institutions, including the Cabinet (Council of Ministers) and the Parliament.

King Mahendra was succeeded by his 27 year-old son, King Birendra, in 1972. Amid student demonstrations and anti-regime activities in 1979, King Birendra called for a national referendum to decide the nature of Nepal's government--either the continuation of the panchayat system with democratic reforms or the establishment of a multiparty system. The referendum was held in May 1980, and the panchayat system won a narrow victory. The King carried out the promised reforms, including selection of the prime minister by the Rastriya Panchayat.

Movement To Restore Democracy

In 1990, the political parties again pressed the King and the government for change. Leftist parties united under a common banner of the United Left Front and joined forces with the Nepali Congress Party to launch strikes and demonstrations in the major cities of Nepal. This "Movement to Restore Democracy" was initially dealt with severely, with more than 50 persons killed by police gunfire and hundreds arrested. In April, the King capitulated. Consequently, he dissolved the panchayat system, lifted the ban on political parties, and released all political prisoners.
An interim government was sworn in on April 19, 1990, headed by Krishna Prasad Bhattarai as Prime Minister presiding over a cabinet made up of members of the Nepali Congress Party, the communist parties of Nepal, royal appointees, and independents. The new government drafted and promulgated a new constitution in November 1990, which enshrined fundamental human rights and established Nepal as a parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarch. International observers characterized the May 1991 elections as free and fair, in which the Nepali Congress Party won 110 seats out of 205 to form the government.

In mid-1994, the Parliament was dissolved due to dissension within the Nepali Congress Party. The subsequent general election, held November 15, 1994, gave no party a majority. The 1994 elections resulted in a Nepali Congress Party defeat and a hung Parliament, with a minority government led by the United Marxist and Leninist Party (UML); this made Nepal the world's first communist monarchy, with Man Mohan Adhikary as Prime Minister. The next five years saw five successive unstable coalition governments and the beginning of a Maoist insurgency.

Following the May 1999 general elections, the Nepali Congress Party once again headed a majority government after winning 113 out of 205 seats. But the pattern of short-lived governments persisted. There were three Nepali Congress Party Prime Ministers after the 1999 elections: K.P. Bhattarai (5/31/99-3/17/00); G.P. Koirala (3/20/00-7/19/01); and Sher Bahadur Deuba (7/23/01-10/04/02).
On June 1, 2001, Crown Prince Dipendra reportedly shot and killed his father, King Birendra; his mother, Queen Aishwarya; his brother; his sister; his father's younger brother, Prince Dhirendra; and several aunts; before turning the gun on himself. After his death two days later, the late King's surviving brother Gyanendra was proclaimed King.

In February 1996, the leaders of the Maoist United People's Front began a violent insurgency, waged through killings, torture, bombings, kidnappings, extortion, and intimidation against civilians, police, and public officials in more than 50 of the country's 75 districts. Over 12,000 police, civilians, and insurgents have been killed in the conflict since 1996. The government and Maoists held peace talks in August, September, and November of 2001, but they were unsuccessful, and the Maoists resumed their violent insurgency. Shortly after the 2001 peace talks failed, King Gyanendra declared a state of emergency and the Parliament approved this declaration by a two-thirds vote. On the recommendation of Prime Minister Sher Bahadur Deuba, the King dissolved the House on May 22, 2002.

Struggle for Democracy Continues

In a sudden turn of events on October 4, 2002, King Gyanendra removed Prime Minister Deuba and assumed executive power. The entire Council of Ministers was also dissolved, and the November 13, 2002 elections to the dissolved House of Representatives were called off. After a week-long consultation with the leaders of various political parties, on October 11, 2002, the King appointed Lokendra Bahadur Chand as Prime Minister with a five-point directive that included creating an environment of peace and security as well as holding elections to the local bodies and the House of Representatives.

In a major development after Chand assumed the premiership, the government and Maoists declared a cease-fire on January 29, 2003. This marked the second cease-fire with the Maoists; the first, in 2001, had been broken by the Maoists. The 2003 cease-fire included an agreement to undertake initiatives to resolve the Maoist problem through dialogue and bring the Communist Party of Nepal/Maoist back into mainstream politics. After the announcement of the 2003 cease-fire, the Chand government held two rounds of peace talks with the Maoists, in April and May. But in its effort to end political instability, it failed to secure the support of the leading political parties. In the face of growing pressure from political parties and their mass movement, Chand resigned from his post on May 30, 2003, after only seven months in power.
The King appointed Surya Bahadur Thapa as the new Prime Minister on June 4, 2003, amidst opposition from the major political parties. Another round of peace talks was held in mid-August 2003, but on August 27, 2003 the Maoists broke the second cease-fire. Thapa resigned in May 2004 as a result of political pressures. In June 2004, the King reinstated formerly dismissed Sher Bahadur Deuba as Prime Minister.
Citing a steady deterioration of conditions in the country, King Gyanendra dismissed the Cabinet and constituted a Council of Ministers under his own chairmanship on February 1, 2005. He stated that the Council of Ministers (i.e., Cabinet) would try to reactivate multi-party democracy within three years. The King subsequently declared a state of emergency and suspended almost all fundamental rights for almost three months. His new government was sworn in on February 2, 2005. The Council of Ministers under the King’s chairmanship has been reshuffled twice since then.
In April 2006, a second major people’s movement for the restoration of democracy pressured the King to relinquish power, and on April 24, 2006, King Gyanendra reinstated the 1999 parliament that was dismissed in May 2002. Former Prime Minister Girija Prasad Koirala of the Nepali Congress Party was selected by the opposition seven-party alliance to again lead the government. The Maoists declared a ceasefire on April 26, and the new Koirala government announced its own ceasefire and plans for peace talks with the Maoist insurgents on May 3, 2006.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

According to the constitution, Nepal is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary form of government that is multiethnic, multilingual, Hindu, and retains the king in the role of head of state. The former "partyless" panchayat system of government was abolished in April 1990 (see "Movement to Restore Democracy."). Under the constitution, the democratically elected Parliament consists of the House of Representatives (lower house) and the National Assembly (upper house). International observers considered the 1999 parliamentary elections to be generally free and fair. There have not been any parliamentary elections since 1999. King Gyanendra assumed the throne in June 2001, after the late Crown Prince Dipendra killed King Birendra and nine members of the royal family, including himself.
A Maoist insurgency--punctuated by a cease-fire in 2001, one in 2003, another from September 3, 2005 to January 2, 2006, and the latest one from April 26, 2006--has been ongoing since 1996. A nationwide state of emergency was in effect from November 2001 to August 2002 after Maoist insurgents broke a four-month cease-fire with violent attacks. During that time, King Gyanendra, under the constitution's emergency provisions and on the advice of the Cabinet, suspended several constitutional rights, including freedom of expression, assembly, privacy, and property. In October 2002, the King dismissed Prime Minister Sher Bahadur Deuba after he recommended the dissolution of Parliament but was subsequently unable to hold elections because of the ongoing insurgency. A Cabinet was royally appointed to govern the country until elections could be held at an unspecified future time.
On June 4, 2003 King Gyanendra appointed Surya Bahadur Thapa as Prime Minister after Lokendra Bahadur Chand resigned on May 30, 2003. The government and the Maoists declared another cease-fire on January 29, 2003 and held three rounds of talks on April 27, May 9, and August 17 to 19, 2003. The Maoists unilaterally broke the cease-fire on August 27, 2003 and resumed attacks against government, security, and civilian targets.
Prime Minister Thapa resigned in May 2004, and on June 2, 2004, King Gyanendra reinstated formerly dismissed Sher Bahadur Deuba as Prime Minister. In February 2005, the King dismissed Prime Minister Deuba and dissolved the Cabinet. The Maoists announced a three-month unilateral cease-fire on September 3, 2005, which was extended for another month on December 2, 2005. The Maoists ended this third cease-fire, returning to violence on January 2, 2006. After the King announced the reinstatement of parliament on April 24, the Maoists declared a three-month unilateral ceasefire on April 26, which the new Koirala government reciprocated on May 3.
Under the constitution, Nepal's judiciary is legally separate from the executive and legislative branches, and in practice has increasingly shown the will to be independent of political influence. The judiciary has the right of judicial review under the constitution. The King appoints the Chief Justice and all other judges to the Supreme, Appellate, and District Courts upon the recommendation of the Judicial Council. All lower court decisions, including acquittals, are subject to appeal. The Supreme Court is the court of last appeal. The King may grant pardons and may suspend, commute, or remit any sentence pronounced by any court.

Human Rights
Since political reform began in 1990, some progress has been achieved in the transition to a more open society with greater respect for human rights; however, substantial problems remain. Poorly trained police sometimes use excessive force in quelling violent demonstrations. In addition, there have been reports of torture during detention and widespread reports of custodial abuse. In 2000, the government established the National Human Rights Commission, a government-appointed commission with a mandate to investigate human rights violations. The government is sometimes slow to follow the commission's recommendations or to enforce accountability for recent and past abuses. The King’s February 2005 dismissal of the government, subsequent imposition of emergency rule and suspension of many civil rights for almost three months--including freedom of expression, assembly, and privacy--was a setback for human rights in Nepal. Censors were reportedly deployed to major newspapers, and many political leaders were kept under house arrest.
Both the Maoists and security personnel have committed numerous human rights violations. The Maoists have used tactics such as kidnapping, torture, bombings, intimidation, killings, and conscription of children. Within the Nepalese security force, violations ranging from disappearances to executions have been recorded. After the royal takeover on February 1, 2005 and subsequent imposition of the state of emergency, the security forces arrested many political leaders, student leaders, journalists, and human rights activists under the Public Security Act of 1989, although all were released by June 2005 when the King ended the state of emergency.
There are three major daily English-language newspapers, "The Kathmandu Post," "The Himalayan Times" and "The Rising Nepal," of which the latter and its vernacular sister publication are owned by a government corporation. There are literally hundreds of smaller daily and weekly periodicals that are privately owned and of diverse journalistic quality. Views expressed since the 1990 move to democracy are varied and vigorous. Currently twenty-five radio and three television stations are privately owned and operated, due to liberalization of licensing regulations. Radio Nepal and Nepal Television are government-owned and operated. There are nearly 200 cable television operators nationwide, and satellite dishes to receive television broadcasts abound.
There are some restrictions on freedom of expression. The law strictly forbidding the media to criticize or satirize the King or any member of the royal family is currently being enforced after the King’s February 2005 dissolution of the Cabinet. After the royal takeover on February 1, 2005, the Ministry of Information and Communications issued a notice invoking the National Broadcasting Act of 1992, stating that no media can publish interviews, articles, or news items against the spirit of the royal proclamation of February 1. A second notice invoking the Press and Publications Act of 1991 was issued on February 3 stating that no media can publish news items supporting terrorist and destructive activities.

On October 9, 2005, the government promulgated a new Media Ordinance restricting news reporting by private FM radio stations, prohibiting criticism of the King and royal family, restricting dissemination of news from foreign sources, enabling a government-controlled press council to recommend revoking a journalist's press credential; and placing new restrictions on cross-media ownership. In the months following the issuance of the ordinance, armed authorities raided private FM radio stations and seized station equipment, although the government has since obeyed a Supreme Court order to return the equipment and allow FM stations to broadcast news. The newly reinstated government led by Prime Minister Koirala announced in May 2006 that all media ordinances passed by the former King-led government would be overturned, and the Supreme Court on May 5, 2006, upheld FM stations' right to air news.
Trafficking in women and child labor remain serious problems. Discrimination against women and lower castes is prevalent.
Government

• Type: Constitutional monarchy.
• Constitution: November 9, 1990.
• Branches: Executive--prime minister (head of government), king (head of state).
• Legislative--Parliament consisting of House of Representatives (205-member lower house) and National Assembly (60-member upper house). Judicial--Supreme Court, 16 appellate courts, 75 district courts.
• Subdivisions: 5 development regions, 14 zones, and 75 districts. 75 district development committees, 58 municipalities, 3,913 village development committees, and 36,023 ward committees.
• Political parties (lower house representation): Nepali Congress Party, Nepali Congress-Democratic Pary, Communist Party of Nepal/United Marxist-Leninist, National Democratic Party (RPP), Nepal Goodwill Party (NSP), National People's Front, and others.
• Elections: No national elections since 1999.
• Suffrage: Universal over 18.
• Defense/police (2005): $265 million.
• National Day: Democracy Day, Falgun 7 (mid-February).

Ethnic Communities of Nepal

2007-04-10T01:43:00.000-07:00

Ethnic groups of NepalNepal has a population of more than 26 million people, made up of over 60 different races and tribes. The country offers such diversity that the visitor may experience any lifestyle from the stone age, in far west and high hills, to the jet age of Kathmandu. The two major groups in Nepalese society are Tibeto-Burmans, or Mongoloids from the north, and Indo-Aryans from the south. Many customs are inherited from both sides and have been developed by the influences of the land, climate and available resources.
1. Badi:
Badi is a Dalit community from Nepal which belongs to the Indo-Aryan ethnic group. According to Hindu cast system this community belongs to the lowest hierarchy. Badi people live mainly in the western part of Nepal. The word 'Badi' means Vadyabadak, one who plays musical instruments, in Sanskrit. The population of Badi communities are few thousands and are found in Dang, Sur\khet areas of Nepal.

2. Brahman-Hill
The Brahman-Hill is an ethnic group of Nepal making up 12.5% of the country's population.The Brahman cast includes lots of sub division (family names) that includes Acharya, Adhikari, Aryal/Arjyal/Arjel, Bastakoti, Bhattarai, Bastola, Dahal, Dhakal, Dhungel, Devkota, Dhungana , Gajurel, Gautam, Gurangai, Kafle, Kharel, Khatiwada, Koirala, Lamichhane, Nepal, Neupane, Pokhrel, Paudel, Pradhan, Pandey, Pudasiani, Pyakurel, , Pant, Regmi, Sharma, Subedi, Wagle, Uppadhya, Upreti and many more.

3. Chepang
Chepang is the commonly used name given to an ethnic group living in central and southern Nepal. The language is also known as Chepang but is called Chyo-bang by the people themselves. High caste Nepalese also call these people the "Praja" meaning "political subjects". The people speak 3 different dialects of this Tibeto-Burman language that is closely related to Raute and Raji, two undocumented languages spoken in western Nepal. Chepang is one of the few languages which uses a duodecimal (base 12) counting system rather than the decimal (base 10). Chepang traditionally practised some slash-and-burn agriculture, or simple hoe-based horticulture along with mostly hunting and gathering from the forests. Since being resettled in southern Nepal and impinged upon by Nepali speaking groups, Chepang have begun plow-based agriculture.
Chepang men and women are basically egalitarian and no social ranking exists as it does in caste Nepalese society. There are no chiefs.
The Chepangs themselves follow Animism, although they are strongly influenced by both Hinduism and Buddhism, which came from the Tamangs just north of them. They observe all the Hindu festivals of Dashain, Tihar and Sakrantis besides their own tribal festival Nwagi, which is performed on a Tuesday during third week of Bhadra (some day in August and September). According to the 2001 Nepal Census, there are 52,237 Chepang in the country, of which 70.23% were Hindu, 18.75% were Boudhists and 8.78% were Christians.

4. Chhettri
The Chhetri are largest ethnic group of Nepal making up 15.5% of the country's population.
They are predominantly Hindus and are of eastern Indo-Aryan stock. The word "Chhetri" is actually a corruption of the Sanskrit word "Kshatriya", meaning hereditary warriors and rulers who are below the priestly Brahman caste but above the merchant and farmer/craftsman castes that altogether make up Hinduism's four "clean" or touchable castes. The royal family belongs to the Thakuri-subcaste of Chhetris. The nepalese history even though has experienced the rulers of different castes except than that of the chhetris but the present royal regime of the shah's also belongs to the chhetri caste. However, this notion has fundamental flaws and lacks historical as well as ethnographical evidence, thus it is severely disputable among the scholars of the Nepalese history.

5. Kami
Kami is a Dalit community from Nepal which belongs to Indo-Aryan ethnic group. Kamis are essentially blacksmiths who are scattered in almost all hilly districts of Nepal. They are the makers of famous Khukri knives which are used by Gurkha Army. According to the 2001 Nepal Census, there are a total of 895,954 Kami in the country,of which 96.69% were Hindus and 2.21% were Boudhists.

6. Kirant
Kirant, Kirati or Kirat refers to the Kiranti group or Kirat confederation that includes the Rai, Limbu and Sunuwar ethnic groups of Nepal. The distinct Tibeto-Burman languages of the Rai, Limbu and Sunuwar are known as Kiranti.

7.Kusunda
The Kusunda or Ban Raja ("people of the forest") are a tribe of people ethnically related to the Chepang, but unlike the Chepang who dwell in mud houses, the few dozen remaining ethnic Kusundas dwell in the forest.
The Kusundas are followers of Animism, though Hindu overtones may be seen in their religious rituals. According to the 2001 Nepal census, there are a total of 164 ethnic Kusunda of which 160 were Hindus and 4 were Buddhists. To many Nepalis, the Kusundas are sometimes stereotyped as barbaric cannibals, perhaps due to the Chepang's assumption that when a Kusunda come across a Chepang, the former had the intention of killing the latter. This caused the Chepang to avoid the Kusunda.
Kusunda language Their language was previously classified as belonging to the Tibeto-Burman family, but it is now considered to be a language isolate and a remnant of languages spoken in the area prior to the influx of Tibeto-Burman speaking peoples.
Watters (2005) reports the discovery of some fluent and young speakers of Kusunda, the study of which have resulted in the conclusion that Kusunda is a language isolate with hypothesized relationships to Nihali as remnants of an Indo-Pacific substratum.

8. Limbu
The Limbu (meaning: archer) or Yakthumba are an ethnic group that belong to the Kiranti group or Kirat confederation that includes the Rai and Sunuwar who are believed to be the descendants of the ancient Mongolian people and are still known as "Mongolians" in Nepal. Their population of 400,000 is centered on the districts of Sankhuwasabha, Tehrathum, Dhankuta, Taplejung, Panchthar and Ilam, all within the Mechi and Kosi zones in Nepal, as well as the East and West districts of Sikkim. A smaller number are scattered throughout the cities of Darjeeling and Kalimpong in West Bengal, India and also in North and South Sikkim and Bhutan.
Limbus speak a Tibeto-Burman language called Yakthungpan, literally "language of Limbus", also called simply Limbu. It uses the "Kirat Sirijonga" script based on the Tibetan script. Limbu clans are divided between the Lhasa gorta (those from Lhasa) and Kashi gorta, those who come from the Benaras.

The Limbus traditionally practiced subsistence farming. Rice and maize comprised their principal crops. Although there is an abundance of arable land, productivity is greatly limited by insufficient technology. Excess crops are often traded for food that cannot be grown in the region.
A sizable number of Limbu youths used to enlist in the British and Indian Gurkha armies, providing their families with a steady stream of income. Thanks to the Gurkha revenue, the Limbu community as a whole were lifted considerably in terms of health and education. They have good living standard compared to others.

The marriages are mostly arranged by parents or result when a boy elopes with a girl. Asking for a girl's hand, that is the most important ceremony. The boy's family members have to visit the girl's house with a piglet and some alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks depending upon the financial standard of his house. In that system, the girl can ask for anything and an unlimited amount of gold, silver, etc. This confirms to the girl's family that the boy is financially secure enough to keep their daughter happy. The prevalence of the latter practice meant that the key ceremonies of a Limbu wedding take place in the bridegroom's house rather than that of the bride's because girl has to stay with her husband. There is a special dance in this ceremony, it is called dhan nach (wheat harvested rice dance). This dance is characterized by men and women dancing in a slow circle, often for many hours. Anyone can join the dance. It celebrates the harvest season in addition to being a feature of social occasions including weddings. In this ceremony everyone is so happy that they continue dancing and singing till the next day morning.

The Limbus follow the Kiranti Mundhum oral 'scripture'. However, like the Rai, their religion is influenced by both Hinduism and Tibetan Buddhism, although the Buddhist influence is more apparent in the case of the Limbu than with the Rai. They have many different classes of ritual specialist, of which phedangma, yema/yeba, and shamba are some. Their religion is enshrined in the evergreen Cynodondactylon (Dubo) grass. Traditionally, they buried their dead but thanks to the influence of their Hindu neighbours, cremating is gaining in popularity as well. They celebrate the dance festivals of Kelangma popularly known Chyabrung (a two-sided drum [more] often more than four feet in diameter) and Yarak (Paddy dance) as major events. Their priests include the Fedangba, Shamba and Yewa-Yema. According to the Nepal Census of 2001, out of the 359,379 Limbu, 86.29% were Bon and 11.32% were Hindu.
Nepal's pre-eminent sociologist, Professor Dor Bahadur Bista, asserted that, of all the proverbial thirty-six caste and ethnic groups of Nepal, the Hindu caste system made the least impact on the Limbu. In part, this reflected not only their geographical distance from the seat of power in the capital city of Kathmandu but also their cultural independence.

9. Magar people
Magar is an Sino-Tibetan ethnic group of Nepal and northern India whose homeland extends from the western and southern edges of the Dhaulagiri section of the high Himalayas range south to the prominent Mahabharat foothill range and eastward into the Gandaki basin. According to Nepal’s 2001 census, 1,622,421 people identified themselves as belonging to the Magar ethnolinguistic group, representing 7.14% of Nepal’s population and making them the largest indigenous ethnic group in the country. According to the 2001 census, 74.60% of ethnic Magar were Hindus and 24.47% were Budhists.
The Kham Magar who live in the rugged highlands of Rukum, Salyan, Rolpa and Pyuthan districts in Rapti Zone are thought to have migrated south from Siberia because of certain shamanistic practices and other cultural features. They claim to occupy the original Magar homeland in Nepal from whence migration to the south and east proceeded.
Of the 1,622,421 Magar people in Nepal, 770,116 speak a Magar language as their mother tongue. The Kham Magar of Rapti Zone speak Kham language. In Dolpa District, the Magar speak Tarali or Kaike language. The Magar languages are rooted in the Bodic branch of the Tibeto-Burman family.
In addition to shamanistic practices possibly brought from Siberia, the northern Magar practice Tibetan Buddhism in which their priest is known as Bhusal. The social process of Sanskritization has drawn southern Magar populations to develop a syncretic form of Hinduism that combines animist and Buddhist rituals. Hindu Magar villagers recognize three classes of priest; Rama, Jaisi and Dhami.
Generally speaking, Buddhist and Hindu practices are best developed among Magars living in contact with Tibetan Buddhists and Indo-Aryan Hindus respectively. They are less evident in Kham hinterlands particularly in rugged 3-4,000 meter ranges along the boundary between Rukum and Pyuthan-Rolpa districts. These hinterlands are geographically and therefore culturally isolated from the beaten tracks of transhimalayan trade routes and from rice-growing lowlands colonized by Hindu Indo-Aryans.
The Magar traditionally engage in subsistence agriculture, pastoralism, craftsmanship and day labor. The Magar are prominently represented in Nepal’s military, as well as in the British and Indian Gurkha regiments, along with the Gurung, Rai, and other martial ethnic groups from the hills of Nepal. Today, members of the Magar community are also employed as professionals in the fields of medicine, education, government service, law, journalism, development, and aviation.
Like other indigenous groups in Nepal, some members of the Magar community fought in the Nepalese Civil War, a Maoist insurrection launched in 1996 to topple Nepal's constitutional monarchy. On January 9, 2004, Maoist militants declared a revolutionary autonomous regional government, the Magar Autonomous Region, based in Rolpa District in west Nepal.

10 Musalmans
There are Muslims migrated from Northern India. They speak Urdu and their social practices correspond with the Muslim religion.
Although these above accounts depict a fundamental description of Nepalese ethnic groups, it is difficult to pin point who is "ethnic" and who is "non-ethnic", who is "indigennous" and who is "non-indigenous" in a particular place. Past migration histories mean Nepal seems to be a melting pot. This is especially prevently in urban areas.

11. Newar

The Newar or Newah are the indigenous group of Nepal's Kathmandu Valley. Newars are a linguistic community with multiple ethnicity/race and faith, bound together by a common language1. The term Newar applies roughly to the people who inhabited Kathmandu valley and its peripheries before the unification of Nepal and speaking Nepal Bhasa or the languages progenitor of Nepal Bhasa. According to Nepal’s 2001 census, the 1,245,232 Newar in the country are the nation's sixth largest ethnic group, representing 5.48% of the population. Newari language, Nepal Bhasa, is of Tibeto-Burman origin (but heavily influenced by Indo-Iranian languages like Sanskrit, Pali, Bengali and Maithali). Newari language also contains Austro-Asiatic words and phrases. More than 825,458 Nepalese speak Newari languages as their mother language.

History: The different divisions of Newars have different historical developments before their arrival to Kathmandu valley. However, the common identity of Newar is formed after their arrival to the valley. Till the unification of Nepal, except for may be the Muslims under Gayasuddin who attacked and destroyed many parts of the valley, all people who had inhabited the valley at any point of time were either Newar or were progenitors of Newar. So, the history of Newar correlates to a great magnitude to the history of Kathmandu valley till the Unification of Nepal.
The earliest known history of Newar and Kathmandu valley were recorded in the form of mythical scriptures. One of such texts which even accounts the creation of the valley is Swayambhu Purana. According to Swayambhu Purana, the Kathmandu valley was a giant lake called Nāgdaha until the Bodhisattva Manjushree, with the aid of a holy sword called Chandrahrāsa, cut open a part of southern hill of Kachchhapāla2 and then cut open Gokarna daha3 and drained the giant lake, allowing humans to settle the valley land. This apocryphal legend is supported by some geological evidence of an ancient lakebed and it provides an explanation for the high fertility of Kathmandu valley soil. According to Swayambhu Purana, Manjushree then established a city called Manjupattan (Sanskrit: land established by Manjushree), now called Manjipā, where he coronated Dharmākara as the king of the land4. A shrine dedicated to Manjushree is still present in Majipā.
The Lichchhavi dynasty ruled for at least 600 years, followed by the Malla dynasty in 12th century AD. Nepal Bhasa script is estimated to be at least 1200 years old. Nepal Bhasa inscriptions in an ancient manuscript, Nidan, from 901 AD and on a stone tablet from 1173 AD in the courtyard of Bajrayogini Temple at Sankhu, attest to the deep roots of Newar culture in the Kathmandu valley.
Newar reign over the valley and their sovereignty and influence over neighboring territories ended approximately 250 years ago with the conquest of the Kathmandu valley in 1769 by the Gorkhali Shah dynasty founded by Prithvi Narayan Shah. Even after the consolidation of the nation-state, the Newar remained a pivotal force in Nepali society as merchants and government administrators, rivalling Brahmin influence in Shah courts.
The Newar maintain a highly literate culture and their members are prominent in every sphere, from agriculture, business, education and government administration to medicine, law, religion, architecture, fine art, and literature. Newar architects are responsible for inventing Asia’s hallmark pagoda architecture. Newar devotional thangka painting, sculpture and metal craftsmanship are world-renowned for their exquisite beauty. The fine temples and palaces of Kathmandu, Patan and Bhaktapur are largely the product of Newar architects, artisans, and sculptors.
Religion: Newar practice both Buddhism and Hinduism. It is believed that the Newar were originally Buddhists but the long historical process of Sanskritization (adoption of Hindu rituals), led to the development of the Newar’s unique syncretic tradition. According to the 2001 Nepal Census, 84.13% of Newars were Hindus and 15.31% were Buddhists.
The Newar are divided into hierarchical clan groups by occupational caste, readily identified by surnames. In the past, the upper caste people used to look down upon the lower caste. Such a division of people created a rift in the society which has rendered the mention of caste as a taboo.
Music: The Newar Music consists mainly of percussion instruments. Wind instruments such as flutes and similar instruments are also used. String instruments are very rare. There are songs pertaining to particular seasons and festivals. Paahan chare music is most probably the fastest played music whereas the Dapa the slowest. The dhimay music are the loudest ones. There are certain musical instruments such as Dhimay and Bhusya which are played as instrumental only and are not accompanied with songs.
Art: Traditional Newar Art is used in rituals and festivals. The prevalent art forms are Paubas (water based gouche paintings on cloth), sculpture (lost wax process bronzes, terracotta, wood and stone), masks (metal and paper-mache), woodcuts and murals. The Chitrakar and Vajracharyas are the traditional painters and the Shakyas are the sculptors. Along with being traditional painters, the Chitrakars are also mask makers (paper-mache), woodcut printers and mural painters.
Dance: The Newar Dance can be broadly classified as masked dance and dance without the use of masks. The most representative of Newari dance is Lakhey dance. Almost all the settlements of Newar have Lakhey dance at least once a year. Almost all of these Lakhey dances are held in the Goonlaa month. So, they are called Goonlaa Lakhey. However, the most famous Lakhey dance is the Majipa Lakhey dance. It is performed by the Ranjitkars of Kathmandu. The dance takes place for a week during the week containing the full moon of Yenlaa month. The Lakhey are considered as the saviors of children.
The Newar Cuisine is a unique type of cuisine. It consists of non-vegetarian and vegetarian items as well as alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages. Mustard oil and a host of spices, such as cumin, sesame seeds, turmeric, garlic, ginger, methi, bayleaves, cloves, cinnamon, pepper, chili, mustard seeds, vinegar, etc. are used in cooking.
Architecture: Newar Architecture consists of Pagoda style, Stupa style, Shikhara style, Chaitya style etc.

Traditionally, the Newars are an urban people with farmlands and farmhouses located on the outskirts of the cities and towns.
• Yenh= Kathmandu
• Yela=Patan
• Khopa=Bhaktapur
• Thimi=Thimi
• Kepuu=Kirtipur
• Bunga

Newar culture is very rich in pageantry and ritual throughout the year. Many festivals are tied to Hindu holidays, Buddha’s birth and the harvest cycle. For instance, an important Newar high holiday is Gunhu Punhi. During this nine-day festival, Newar men and women drink a bowl of sprouted mixed cereals, receive doro (a ritual protection cord tied on the wrist by a Brahman priest) and then offer food to frogs in the farmers’ fields. On the second day, Sā Pāru (Gai Jatra), people who have lost a family member in the past year dress up as cows and parade through town, in the belief that cows help souls enter heaven. The last day of Gunhu Punhi is Krishnastami, birthday of lord Krishna, an incarnation of lord Vishnu.
Yanyā Punhi (Indra Jatra) is a holiday related to Hindu god king of heaven, Indra. The festival begins with the carnival-like erection of Yosin, a ceremonial pole, accompanied by the rare display of the deity Aakash Bhairab, represented by a massive mask spouting beer and liquor. Households throughout Kathmandu display images and sculptures of Indra and Bhairab only at this time of year. Finally, the Kumari, or virgin goddess(living goddess), leaves the seclusion of her temple in a palanquin and leads a procession through the streets of Kathmandu to thank Indra the rain god.
Many rituals are related to the stages of life stages from birth, first rice-feeding, childhood, puberty, marriage, seniority and death. The complexity and all-encompassing nature of these rituals cannot be exaggerated. For instance, Newar girls undergo a Bahra ceremony when they reach menarche. Because menstruation is considered ritually impure, girls undergo ritual confinement for 12 days. Girls are separated from all males and from sunlight for 12 days while they are doted upon by female relatives. On 12th day the girl must pay homage to the sun.
Should a Newar man or women live long enough, there are five rituals, known as "janku,"—which can be confusing, as the first rice feeding ceremony is referred to as "janku" as well—performed between the age of 77 and 106. These at the age 77 years, 7 months, 7 days; 83 years, 4 months, 4 days (after one has seen 1000 full moons in one's life); 88 years, 8 months, 8 days; 99 years, 9 months, 9 days; and, finally, at 105 years, 8 months, 8 days. After these rituals are performed, the person will be regarded as a god. Husband and wife will perform their rituals together, as the events occur for the husband.
Afterwards, the full complement of life cycle rituals will have been completed, until the death ceremony.
12. Rajbansis
This is a dominant ethnic group of far eastern Terai areas of Jhapa and Morang. Although they follow both Hindu and Muslims religions, they have their own local practices. Farming is their major occupation.
13. Rai
The Rai, also known as the Khambu, are one of Nepal’s most ancient indigenous ethnolinguistic groups. The Rai belong to the Kiranti group or Kirat confederation that includes the Limbu and Sunuwar ethnic groups.
The traditional homeland of the Rai extends across Solukhumbu, Okhaldhunga (the Bahing,Wambule subgroups), Khotang, Bhojpur and Udayapur districts in the northeastern mountains of Nepal, west of the Arun River, in the Sun Kosi River watershed. Rais are also found in small numbers in the Indian state of Sikkim and the northern West Bengal towns of Kalimpong and Darjeeling.

14 Satars
They are similar to Santhals of Bihar, India. They are very much like Tharus and their social life is organised and disiplined. They believe in Hinduism. Dimals, Bodos, Dhangars are agriculturist Hindu. Bodos are settled in an area know as the Mechi Zone and are more known as Mechain people. Dhangars, who live in one part of the eastern Terai have their origin in Madhya Pradesh, India. Dhimals are the Terain counterparts of the Limbus from the eastern Terai, mainly in Jhapa.
15 Sherpa

The Sherpa are an ethnic group from the most mountainous region of Nepal, high in the Himalaya. In Tibetan shar means East; pa is a suffix meaning 'people': hence the word sharpa or Sherpa. Sherpas migrated from eastern Tibet to Nepal within the last 500 years. A female sherpa is known as a "sherpani".
The term 'sherpa' (the preferred spelling with a lower case first letter) is also incorrectly used to refer to local people, typically men, employed as porters or guides for mountaineering expeditions in the Himalayas. They are highly regarded as experts in mountaineering and their local terrain, as well as having good physical endurance and resilience to high altitude conditions. However, a sherpa is not necessarily a member of the Sherpa ethnic group.

Most Sherpas live in the eastern regions of Nepal Solu, Khumbu or Pharak. However, some live farther west in the Rolwaling valley and in the Helambu region north of Kathmandu. Pangboche is the Sherpas' oldest village in Nepal, and is estimated to have been built over 300 years ago. Sherpas speak their own Sherpa language which in many ways resembles a dialect of Tibetan. They traditionally are traders and farmers, cultivating their high altitude fields of potatoes, barley, wheat and buckwheat. Some live near Namche Bazaar. The Jirels, native people of Jiri, are ethnically related to the Sherpas. It is said that the Jirels are descendants of a Sherpa mother and Sunuwar (another ethnic group of the eastern part of Nepal) father. In India, Sherpas also inhabit the towns of Darjeeling and Kalimpong and the Indian state of Sikkim. The 2001 Nepal Census recorded 154,622 Sherpas in that country, of which 92.83% were Buddhists, 6.26% were Hindus, 0.63% were Christians and 0.20% were Bön.
Sherpas have been the pride of Nepal, and the hope for the future. The Sherpas contribute substantially to the economic growth and stability of Nepal.

Sherpas were of immeasurable value to early explorers of the Himalayan region, serving as guides and porters at the extreme altitudes of the peaks and passes in the region. Today, the term is used casually to refer to almost any guide or porter hired for mountaineering expeditions in the Himalayas. However, in Nepal Sherpas insist on making the distinction between themselves and general porters, as they often serve in a more guide-like role and command higher pay and respect from the community. (Often the generic term "sherpa" meaning guide is written uncapitalized, in contrast with the capitalized "Sherpa" meaning the ethnic group.)
Sherpas are renowned in the international climbing and mountaineering community for their hardiness, expertise, and experience at high altitudes. Many have speculated that a portion of Sherpas' climbing ability may be due to a genetically greater lung capacity, allowing much better performance at high altitudes.[citation needed] It has also been suggested that one reason why they were widely used as porters is that they had fewer dietary prohibitions than most people of the region and were prepared to eat whatever was given to them on expeditions.
The most famous Sherpa is Tenzing Norgay, who climbed Mount Everest with Edmund Hillary for the first time in 1953.
Two Sherpas, Pemba Dorjie and Lhakpa Gelu, have recently competed as to who can climb Everest from Basecamp quicker. On May 23, 2003 Dorjie summitted in 12 hours and 46 minutes. Three days later, Gelu beat his record by two hours, summitting in 10 hours 46 minutes. On May 21, 2004 Dorjie again improved the record by more than two hours with a total time of 8 hours and 10 minutes.[1]
On May 19, 2006, Appa Sherpa successfully climbed Mt. Everest for the 16th time, breaking his own record for most successful ascents.

16 Tamang

The Tamang (also known as Murmi) are one of the several ethnic groups living in Nepal descended from Tibeto-Burman origins. Living mainly north and east of the Newars in the Kathmandu Valley, they constitute 5.6% of Nepal's population, which places their population at 1,280,000, slightly higher than the Newars. Due to their geographical location, their language is vaguely intelligible with Newari but closely related to both Tibetan and Sherpa.
The name Tamang, in Tibetan, means horse traders, which suggest that their ancestors came from the north and traded horses with the local community (Newars) and later settled and intermarried among them. However, many of them today earn a living through serving as porters. Like the Sherpas, they are also good mountaineers and mountain-guides. Some of Tamang were also recruited to serve in the British and Indian Gurkha regiments.
The Tamangs are followers of Tibetan Buddhism mixed with elements of the pre-Buddhist Bön and the Tambaist religion. Due to their proximity to the Newar, a slight Hindu influence can be seen in their practises. Their priests include Lama, Bombo and Tamba. According to the 2001 census, 90.26% of the ethnic Tamang in Nepal were Boudhists and 7.69% were Hindus.[citation needed]
Many Tamang clans do not permit intermarriage with other ethnic groups, although some clans do permit intermarriages with the Gurung, Magar, Newar, and Chhettri. Their descent is traced patrilineally.

17 Thakali
The Thakali ethnolinguistic group originated from the Thak Khola region of the Mustang district in the Dhaulagiri zone of Nepal. Thak-sat-se is the traditional area of the Thakali community, which lies in the salt trading zone on the south of Tukuche mountain, the valley of the Kali Gandaki river in western Nepal. Their population of around 13,000 constitute only 0.06% of Nepal's population. According to the 2001 NepalCensus, there were 12,973 Thakali in Nepal , of which 65.01% were Buddhists and 33.83% were Hindus.
The Thakalis are some of Nepal's most successful businessmen. They trade in places like Tukuche and Thaksatse. Furthermore, many are owners of Nepal's hotels and motels. Their business skills can be compared to the Chinese businessmen who came to Malacca to trade during the pre-Colonial period.
However, due to extensive trade all over Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Tibet, many Thakalis have resettled in Kathmandu or in southern Nepal. Due to this, the Thakalis outside their homeland follow a syncretic form of Tibetan Buddhism heavily influenced by Hinduism, particularly the Thakali in southern Nepal. Those in Mustang remain much more traditionally Buddhist.
The Thakalis are a strictly endogamous group, distinctly divided into four exogamous clans. Thus, a member of the Thakal community is expected to marry another Thakali but the marriage must be outside his or her own particular clan group. Marriages between cousins are allowed.
The four clans are equal in status socially and ritually. However, on the basis of precedence in worship, the Gauchan clan usually comes first, followed by Tulachan, Sherchan, and Bhattachan. Each clan group has a distinct clan god represented by an animal totem, such as dragon, elephant, snow leopard, and yak for Gauchan, Tulachan, Sherchan and Bhattachan, respectively.
The Thakalis are very organized people. They have neat kitchens and keep tidy houses. Lhafewa (Bar Barse Kumbha Mela), Tornala (ancestral worship) and Falo (Kumar Yatra) are the major festivals of the Thakali. Dhnom is the title of the Thakali priest who works as the local shaman. Madaal, Khaprang, and Thamken are their main musical instruments.

18 Tharu
The Tharu people are indigenous people living in the Terai plains on the border of Nepal and India. The population of Nepal is 28,287,147 (July 2006 est.), of which the Tharu people make up 6.6%.[1] A smaller number of Tharus live in India, mostly in Champaran District of Bihar and in Nainital District of Uttar Pradesh.[2]
The Tharu are recognised as an official nationality by the Government of Nepal Plains.[3] They were the primary victims of the Kamaiya system outlawed by the government of Nepal on July 17 of 2000. It is now illegal to contract for labor through debt bondage or indenture.[4] Though democracy has been reinstated in the country, the Tharu community has called for a more inclusive democracy as they are fearful of remaining a backward, underpriviledged people.[5]

The Tharu is largest and oldest ethnic group of the Terai region, living in villages near dense malaria-infested jungles in regions that were isolated over the millennia, allowing them to develop a unique culture.[6] They work usually as farmers or peddlers. Although physically the Tharu are similar to other peoples in the area, they speak their own language that originated in Sanskrit and is now recognised officially.[7]
Recent medical evidence supports the common belief that the Tharu people, having lived in the swampy Terai region for centuries, have developed an innate resistance to malaria that is likely based on an unidentified genetic factor.[8]

According to Nepali author Subodh Kumar Singh, a series of invasions by the Rajput kings, eroded the influence of the indigenious Tharus. In 1854 Jung Bahadur, the first Rana prime minister of Nepal, developed the Mulki Ain, a codification of Nepal's indigenous legal system which divided society into a system of castes. The Tharus were placed at the bottom of the social hierarchy. Their land was taken away, disrupting their community and displacing the people. In the 1950s, World Health Organisation helped the Nepalese government eradicate malaria in the Terai region. This resulted in immigration of people from other areas to claim the fertile land, making the Tharus slaves of the new landowners and developing the kamaiya system of bonding generations of Tharus families to labour.[9]

The Tharu live in longhouses which may hold up to 150 people. The longhouses are built of mud with lattice walls[10] They grow barley, wheat, maize, and rice, as well as raise animals such as chickens, ducks, pigs, and goats. In the big rivers, they use large nets to fish.[11]
Because the Tharu lived in isolation in malarial swamps until the recent use of DDT, they developed a style of decorating the walls, rice containers and other objects in their environment. The Tharu women transform outer walls and verandahs of their homes into colorful paintings dedicated to Lakshmi, the Hindu goddess of prosperity and fertility.[6]
The Tharu are adherents of Hinduism, but also held Islamic, Animist and Buddhist beliefs. Small numbers have converted to Buddhism in the recent years. Such syncretic practices have led Tharu to practice folk Hinduism. With the advent of religious freedom, others have converted to Christianity and there are a variety of congregations active in the various districts where Tharus are found.
Traditional Tharu worship various gods in the form of animals such as dogs, crow, ox and cows. Such gods are seen in Hinduism. Every village has their own deity, commonly known as Bhuinyar. Tharu in East Nepal call their deity Gor-raja.
Most Tharu households own a statue of a traditional god. Family members often offer animal's blood sacrifices to appease the god. Animals such as pigeons and chickens are used for sacrificial purposes. Milk and silk cloth are also used. Many Tharu would also use the blood of one of the male members in the family for such rituals. Such rituals are conducted through ceremonies, and superficial cuts are made forehead, arms, throat, legs, and/or chest.
The gods are believed to have the ability to heal diseases and sickness. According to traditional legend, gods are given a bhakal, a promise of something, on condition that the sickness is cured, in any events of misfortunes, plagues and horror dreams. A relative's death is an event of great significance among Tharu, and rituals conducted varies in accordance to regions.
Tharu would approach shamans as doctors, known as Guruba. Such shamans use Buddhist medicines to cure illness. Shamans will also try to appease gods through incantations, beating drums and offering sacrifices. The Tharu believe sickness comes when the gods are displeased, and the demons are at work.
Buddhist converts among the Tharu are found in Saptari, Siraha and Udaypur. Currently it is believed that there are more than one dozen of Buddhist monks and novices among the Tharus. Such practice was possibly based on the fact that they were inspired by the discovery of Lord Buddha as a member of the Tharu tribe.

18 Yadav

Yadav is a Indian caste which is referred to in ancient Dharmic scriptures. They are among the few surviving ancient Aryan kshatriya clans known as panchjanya. Yadavas are the descendants of Royal born vedic kshatriya clan of Yadu (eldest son of Emperor Yayati)

Major Yadav clans currently include: Krishnauth (claiming direct lineage from Lord Shri Krishna) Manjrauth Gaur (also called Goriya, and mentioned in the Mahabharatha)
• Ahirs (variously called Ahira and Abhira) are divided into three clans called Khanap: Yaduvanshi (descendants of Yadu) Nandavanshi (Descendants of Nanda} Gwalvanshi (Descendants of Holy Gwals) Dhangars (in Maharashtra and Karnataka) are divided into 32 clans Yadavas,gollas,Bhatrajus and Kurubas (in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka)
• Konars (in Tamilnadu and Kerala) Maniyani (in Kerala) Sadgops (in Bengal)
• Behera,Pradhans in Orissa.
•
• According to Dharmic mythology, Yadvas are the descendants of Yadu, the eldest son of
• king Yayati who was banished from ruling by his father because he refused to fulfill Yayati's wishes and became a rebel. Yadu and his descendants started ruling in places that are assumed to be referred to in the scriptures as Jambudvipa. Later on, the Yadus overthrew many Puru rulers. Presently, they are known by many names. For example, 'Gope' means mystique stemming from Shiva (also called Gopeshwar or lord of mysticism) and emulated in Bhagavad Gita. Yaduvanshis are descendants of the ancient Yadavs. Scriptures referred to them as surasena too.
Abhira are assumed to be different from ancient Yadavas. Linkage is obscure and views vary from scholar to scholar. Term was used for cowherds initially but has been extended to include Yaduvanshi and Nandavanshis too by its corrupt version Ahir. Abhira means fearless and have got most ancient historical references dating back to the Abhira kingdom of the Saraswati Valley who spoke Abhiri till buddhist period.[1] Analysis of scriptural references of Abhira Kingdoms has tempted some scholars to conclude that it was merely a term used for Holy Yadava Kingdoms.
The following is an account of a fallacy where the Jews took the Vedas of the Yadavs and holocausted them. This a record of history.
It is also suggested that Semetic biblical city or people called ophir is equivalent of Bharatya Abhira. On this basis, some scholars seek yadav and Jews connection. According to Stephen Knapp, the Greeks referred to the Jews as Judeos, or Jah deos or Yadavas, meaning people of Ya or descendants of Yadu, one of the sons of Yayati.[2] It is also regarded that the basis of the Kabbalah, the book of Jewish mystical concepts, as described in The Holy Kabbalah by Arthur Edward Waite, is linked with Vedas. Yadavas were possessors of great mystical knowledge is confirmed in Bhagvad Gita itself which says same knowledge was given to Manu (first man on earth), Surya and Ikshavaku (ancestor of Lord Rama) at very ancient time. It is believed Abhira were the link between eastern and western religions. There are compelling proofs of both mauryan and Guptas being Abhirs.[3] The Kshatriya religion was propounded by Krishna, and no reference is found before him. We only find Rajnya as the term alternatively used for it (Bhagwad Gita is emaciated form of hidden knowledge—Gope—which has its root in Shiva). Later on, many Kshatriyas were made based on the philosophy of this religion as revealed in Bhagavad Gita.
According to Dharmic mythology, Jarasandh, Kamsa's father-in-law, and king of Magadha attacked Yadavas to avenge the killing of Kansa. Yadavas had to shift their capital from Mathura (central Aryavart) to Dwaraka (on the western coast of Aryavart) on the The Sindhu(Ocean in Sanskrit).

Kumari- the Living Goddess of Nepal

2007-04-03T17:11:00.000-07:00

Kumari – the living goddess of Nepal

Nepal is a multi-religious, multi-ethnic, multi-cultural country. Majority of the people are either Hindu and/or Buddhist. Both the Hindu and Buddhist people have many gods, goddess, deities incarnations and manifestations- which are worshipped and revered as statues, images, paintings and symbols- but it also has a real living goddess- Kumari.
"Kumari" means pre-pubescent girl regarded as ‘virgin goddess’ and a source of supreme power by both Hindu and Buddhist. The Goddess Kumari is believed to hold the cosmic power to protect and defend all living beings. In Nepalese community especially, in Hindu, the unmarried girls used to write "Kumari" as a middle name and married women write "Devi" as a middle name; literally the world "Kumari" means a virgin girl in Nepali language.

The Kumari is regarded as an incarnation of Taleju Bhawani, a goddess and a female deity Durga, the Universal Mother. The "Kumari" cult is mainly found in Kathmandu valley and mainly practiced by Newar communities. In each town of Kathmandu valley i.e. Kathmandu, Patan and Bhaktapur there are one Kumari, but the Kumari of Kathmandu is regarded as royal Kumari . The Kumari is selected from the "Shakya" family in Kathmandu. Newars are a sect of people originally belonging to the Katmandu Valley and Shakya is one of the lower, and poor clan of Newar caste systemKumari is selected from a large number of contestants from the Shakya clan between the age of four and five. Five senior priests choose the girl from the "Newar" Shakya caste.. In order to be a Kumari, one must pass through several tests. The girl must possess 32 attributes of perfection of the goddess such as free from any disfigurement, a perfect health and no serious illnesses, virgin with an unblemished body. She must have prominent black and gorgeous expressive eyes, white teeth without any gaps, a sonorous voice, long slender arms, delicate and soft hands and feet, straight hair curled towards the right side. The most important requirement is that the girl has never menstruated
When a Kumari has her first menstruation, she loses her divine power and is returned back to life as an ordinary girl. Menstruation is seen as a mark of impurity in the Nepalese society. Other Hindu girls must stay inside a closed room for the first two weeks without encountering males in general and sunlight after their first menstruation. This is a tradition that has been continued for centuries. At the end of the two weeks, the girls have to perform certain rituals with priests, which are specific to the pubescent girls, before she can lead an ordinary life. Finally, the girls’ horoscope must match with that of the King of Nepal to ensure compatibility.

The girls who meet these physical requirements are then subjected to several other rigorous tests. The selection of the Kumari ceremony is usually held on the eighth day of Dashain festival and is called Kal-ratri (Dark night). Dashain is one of the biggest Hindu festivals in Nepal that falls in mid October. During the day, many buffaloes are sacrificed and their bloody heads are placed in candlelight in the courtyard of the Taleju temple. At midnight the priests carry the Kumari clockwise around the monstrous heads. A dancer wearing a monstrous mask dances near the girls to terrify them. The real goddess is unlikely to be frightened, so the one who is calm and collected throughout the tests is the only girl who is entitled to sit on the pedestal for worship as the Living Goddess. Finally the girl is given the items of clothing and decoration worn by her predecessor. This is how an ordinary four-year girl becomes a Living Goddess, the Kumari.

Once the selection procedure is over, the Kumari must undergo a series of secret rituals mainly tantric ceremonies to remove all past experiences from the body to allow for the spirit of the Goddess Taleju to enter. (Tantric is the Hindu rituals or practices outlined with the techniques of meditative and sexual practices. Thus Tantricism is the process in which tantric rituals are practiced).
Wearing her Kumari topknot, a tika, and a red mark on her forehead to represent the third eye, red vestments, red painted toes, and elaborate jewelry, the ceremony reaches its climax when the girl takes her seat on the lion throne of the goddess. At dawn she leaves the temple and walks through a huge crowd, treading on a white cloth as she goes across the public square to her official residence as a Taleju Goddess (Durga in the form of Kumari). The third eye on the forehead of the goddess is a metaphorical eye, which is believed to destroy all the evil in the world. Kumari's feet must never touch the ground. The Kumari lives in a three-floored temple of magnificent, intricate, carvings where she performs her daily rituals. During her tenure in the god-house, the government trust fund bears her entire expenses including that of her caretakers.

Kathmandu celebrates a great festival of Indra Jatra the god of rain is worshiped for good weather and good crops. The Kumari festival is a part of the Indra Jatra festival in which the primary purpose is to worship the God Indra. During Indra Jatra, occurring in September, the Living Goddess in all her jeweled splendor travels through the older part of Kathmandu city in a three-tiered chariot made of wood accompanied by Lord Ganesha and Bhairab for three days. During another important Hindu festival, Dashain on the "black night" or kalratri, 108 buffaloes and 108 goats are brought to the courtyard of the Taleju temple and tethered to stone pillars. The heads are then severed and taken up to the temple as offerings to Goddess Taleju.

A girl remains the Kumari until she reveals any signs that show her to be human rather than divine. Should a Kumari fall ill, a doctor may be summoned only if the illness is so serious that she is first declared to be no longer a goddess. Under normal circumstances, her days in the god-house come to an end with her first menstruation, but if she turns out to be unlucky, as people say, even a minor scratch that bleeds can make her invalid for worship. She then changes back to the status of normal mortal and the search for a new Kumari begins. When a girl is declared unfit as Kumari, she immediately ceases to be regarded as a goddess, goes through final rituals, and hands back her jewels and red attire. The spirit of the goddess is said to have vacated her body. She now returns to her family, after living the life of luxury as a goddess, the Kumari is being dumped unprepared and neglected back into the harsh realities of life and try to adjust to the normal life.

Now the status of the Kumari has been improved a lot. Government of Nepal is also proving living allowances to ex-Kumari for her subsistence in their life time. Most of the ex-Kumari have joined school and colleges and are living happy and modern married life.

National Parks of Nepal

2007-04-03T17:00:00.000-07:00

National Parks and conservation areas in Nepal

Protected areas are widely held to be among the most effective means of conserving biological diversity in situ. The establishment of national parks and protected areas in Nepal was primarily initiated for the protection and conservation of wildlife.

The establishment of a national park was initiated in 1958 in Chitwan but due to the lack of proper laws. Protected area management in Nepal received a real thrust in the 1970s and principally agreed to establish Royal Chitwan National Park in terai and Langtang National Park in mountain. The first organized management of protected areas in Nepal was initiated in 1973 by establishing Chitwan National Park and an act for the establishment of National Park and Wildlife Conservation Act issues.

The Protected Areas (PA's) in Nepal include nine national parks, three wildlife reserves, one hunting reserve and three conservation areas and eleven buffer zones covering an area of 28,998 sq. km that is 19.70% of the total area of the country. Out of 118 ecosystems identified in different physiographic zones in Nepal, 80 ecosystems are represented in the protected areas.

The Department of National parks and Wildlife Conservation is responsible for the Protected area management.

A) Conservation Area-3

Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA)
Kanchenjunga Conservation Area
Makalu Barun Conservation Area

B) Hunting Reserve-1

Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve

C) National Parks -9

Bardia National Park
Chitwan National Park (Rcnp)
Langtang National Park
Khaptad National Park
Makalu Barun National Park
Rara National Park
Shey Phoksundo National Park
Sagarmatha National Park
Shivapuri (watershed and wildlife reserave)?????

D) Wildlife Reserve-3

Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve
Parsa Wildlife Reserve
Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve

E)World Heritage Site-1

Lumbini World Heritage site

1.0 Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA):
The Annapurna Conservation (ACA) is spread over 7,629 sq. km. of Kaski, Myagdi, Parbat and Manang districts in northwest Nepal. Established in 1986, the conservation area is surrounded by high mountains and deep valleys. A mosaic of ethnic groups has carved lifestyle out of its steep terraces and barren plateaus. The conservation area is also home to 1,226 species of plants, 38 species of orchids, 9 species of Rhododendrons, 101 species of mammals, 478 species of birds, 39 species reptiles and 22 species of amphibians.
The symbolic species of the Conservation Area are the elusive snow leopard and its prey blue sheep. The other mammals found in the region include Himalayan Black Bear, Langur, Red Panda, Marten, Jungle cat, barking deer, Serow, goral etc. Among the avi-fauna are the 6 pheasants namely Damphe, Monal, Kalij, Cheer, Koklass and Blood pheasants. The region comprises of the world’s deepest gorge of the Kali Gandaki river (2.4 km wide and 4.8 km long) between Mt Dhaulagiri and Mt Annapurna. The Kali Gandaki river valley is a store house of the fossils from the prehistoric Tethys sea dating back 60 million year ago. The other landmarks of the Annapurna Conservation Area are the world’s largest rhododendron forests of Ghorepani, and the highest glacial lake of Tilicho. The cultural diversity of the region is equally vibrant. Gurungs and Magars are the major ethnic groups in the southern belt, and the Thakali, Manange, and Loba in the north. There are also Brahmins, Chhetris, Damai, and Kamis sparsely spread in the region. Annapurna Conservation Area is a major trekking destination in Nepal. More than 40,000 tourists annually visit the conservation area. Ghandruk and Lwang are typical Gurung villages with scenic splendours. The National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC), a leading non-profit and non-governmental environmental organization in Nepal, launched the Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP) in 1986. ACAP’s grassroots philosophy involves local people in all aspects on conservation and development. The project aims to improve the socio-economic condition of the local people by integrating conservation and development. It encourages local people’s participatory involvement in the management of natural resources and community development activities.

2.0 Bardia National Park (BNP):
Previously known as Royal Bardia national Park: The Bardiya National Park comprises a total area of 968 sq. kms. BNP is situated in the mid-far western terai, east of the karnali river. The BNP was established in 1976 and further extended in 1984. National Park status was gazetted in 1988. The Park is the largest and most undisturbed wilderness area in the Terai. About 70% of the Park is covered with dominantly sal forest with a balanced mixture of grassland, savanna and riverine forest. Approximately 1500 inhabitants of this valley have been resettled elsewhere. Since farming has ceased in the Babai balley, natural vegetation is regenerating, making it an area of prime habitat for Wildlife. The Park provides excellent habitat for endangered animals like the rhinoceros, wild elephant, tiger swamp deer, black buck, gharial crocokile, marsh mugger crocodile and Gangetic dolphin. Endangered birds include the bengal florican, lesser florican andsarus crane. More than 30 different mammals, over 200 species of birds, and many snakes, lizards and fish have been recordeed in the Park’s forest, grassland and river habitats. A good number of resident and migratory birds are found in the Park.

3.0 Chitwan National Park (RCNP)

Previously known as Royal Nationa Park. Royal Chitwan National Park (RCNP) has long been one of the country’s treasures of natural wonders. The park is situated in south central Nepal, covering 932 sq. km. in the subtropical lowlands of the inner Terai. The area comprising the Tikauli forest - from Rapti river to the foothills of the Mahabharat - extending over an area of 175 sq. km. was declared Mahendra Mriga Kunj (Mahendra Deer Park) by the late King Mahendra in 1959. In the late 1960s, Mr Karna Sakya, the chairman of nepalnature.com had initiated pioneering works such as reconnaissance survey, demarcation etc in Chitwan towards establishing the first national park of the country. It was declared as the Royal Chitwan National Park in 1973. Recognizing the global significance of natural heritage of the park, UNESCO declared Royal Chitwan National Park a World Heritage Site (#284) in 1984. Chitwan meets three criteria for the World Heritage Natural properties, such as the last major surviving example of the natural ecosystems of the Terai region (Criteria ii), superlative natural features of exceptional natural beauty in terms of its scenic attractions of forested hills, grasslands, great rivers and views of the distant Himalaya (Criteria iii), and significant populations of several rare and endangered species, especially the one horned Asian rhinoceros and the Gharial crocodile (Criteria iv).

In 1963, the area south of Rapti River was demarcated as a rhinoceros sanctuary. The area was gazetted as the country’s first national park in 1973.
Chitwan is a vivid illustration of the Terai-Duar Savannas and Grasslands, which is one of the most significant Global 200 Ecoregions. It holds a key segment of the ambitious Terai Arc Landscape approach that envisions long-term biodiversity conservation. The park is a mosaic of land uses comprised of pristine Sal forests, grasslands covered with tall grass including the elephant grass (Saccharum species), rivers and wetlands including the Beeshazari tal, a Ramsar Site.
In 1996, an area of 750 sq. km surrounding the park was declared a buffer zone which consists of forests and private lands. The park and the local people jointly initiate community development activities and manage natural resources in the buffer zone. His Majesty’s Government has made a provision of plowing back 30-50 percent of the park revenue for community development in the buffer zone.

Recognized as the best managed national park, the Royal Chitwan National Park (932 sq km) is home to over 50 species of mammals, 525 birds, and 55 amphibians and reptiles. The world’s endangered species found in the park include One-horned rhinoceros, Gaur, Royal Bengal tiger, Wild elephant, Four horned antelope, Pangolin, Gangetic dolphin, Gharial crocodile, Golden monitor lizard and Python. Similarly, the endangered bird species of the park include Bengal florican, Lesser florican, Giant hornbill, Black stork and White stork.

Chitwan reflects a dramatic history of conservation. Initiated with rhino conservation in the late 1960s, Chitwan has been an icon of conservation. With the introduction of the progressive policy of the Buffer Zones (750 sq km) in the surround villages, Chitwan provides a world model of community based biodiversity conservation. The community including women groups has reclaimed the degraded land by growing community forests, which turned out to be the wonderful habitats for wildlife including rhino and tigers.
Mild winter is experienced in Chitwan during October through February followed by dry and hot spring season during March through May. The hot and humid season of monsoon lasts from June through September. Wildlife sightings are most frequent in winter and early spring. In January when the annual grass-cutting season is over, wildlife sightings are most dramatic. Migratory birds flock with the residential ones in September-November and February-April, creating spectacular views. Unbelievably, the endangered species like greater one-horned rhinos can be closely viewed on an elephant back. With the help of nature guides, tiger and other species can be sighted. Equally interesting components of the park are the crocodile rehabilitation center and the elephant-breeding center where aged animals and their babies can be seen closely. Numerous other wildlife species both animals and birds can be watched in their natural habitats.

Chitwan offers diverse experience of nature within a relatively short span of space and time. There are opportunities for all sorts of personalized activities including nature walk in the forests, elephant ride in the thick tall grasslands, jungle drive along the forest roads, canoe ride along the gentle streams, strolling around the villages, bird watching, and others.

4. Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve (DHR)
The DHR comprises a total area of 1,325 sq. km. Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve is situated in the Dhaulagiri Himal range in Western Nepal. The DHR was established in 1987. Dhorpatan is the only hunting reserve in the country. The reserve is divided into six blocks for hunting management purposes. The reserve’s elevation ranges from 2,850m to more than 7,000m. The reserve is characterized by alpine, sub-alpine and high temperate vegetation. Common plant species include fir, pine, birch, rhododendron, hemlock, oak, juniper and spruce. Pasturelands at higher elevations occupy more than 50% of the total reserve area. The hunting reserve is one of the prime habitats for blue sheep, a coveted trophy. Other animals found include leopard, goral, serow, Himalayan tahr, Himalayan black bear, barking deer, wild boar, rhesus macaque, langur monkey and mouse hare. Endangered animals in the reserve include musk deer, wolf and red panda. The bird species found within the reserve is rich in diversity including several endangered species of pheasants and partridges. Impeyan pheasant, cheer pheasant, Satyr Trapopan, and Himalayan pied woodpecker are also found here

5.0 Kanchenjunga National Park and Conservation Area (KCA)
Kanchanjunga Conservation Area (KCA) spread over 2035 sq.km. in Taplejung district, lies in the northeast corner of Nepal. It is named after Mt. Kanchenjunga (8,586m)- second highest mountain in Nepal and the third highest in the world. Taplejung district is also renowned for high peaks (eleven peaks higher that 7,000 m) and glaciers. The conservation area with unique mountain ecosystems is envisioned as a tri-national peace park with Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) of China to the north and Sikkim, India, in the east. Sikkim already has Khangchenzonga National Park adjoining KCA whereas the extension of Qomolungma Nature Reserve in TAR, to cover the land bordering KCA, is in progress. In April 1997, His Majesty’s Government of Nepal declared Kanchenjunga region as a Gift to the Earth as part of WWF’s Living Planet Campaign 2000. Kanchenjunga was designated as a conservation area in March 1998. Kanchenjunga Conservation Area is home to wildlife species such as snow leopard, musk deer, Himalayan black bear, goral, blue sheep, serow and common leopard. Himalayan larch and extensive juniper forests found here are unique to this part of Nepal. The region has a mosaic of ethnic groups. The religious sites (temples and monasteries) in the area attest to Kanchenjunga’s rich cultural heritage. Local people combine agriculture, pastoralism and trade to subsist. High rainfall and a considerably humid atmosphere generally characterize the climate of the conservation area. Generally, a dry period does not exist. The number of frost days is also very high. The Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation joined hands with WWF Nepal Program and launched the Kanchenjunga Conservation Area Project in 1997 for the sustainable management of the region’s pristine ecosystem. The Department and WWF are presently working with community based organizations of the area for the participatory management of natural resources and also to improve local people’s living conditions through integrated conservation and development.

6.0 Khaptad National Park (KNP):
The KNP comprises a total area of 225 sq. km. The Park is located in Khaptad National Park is situated in the midmountain region of Far-Western Nepal. It was established in 1984. The vegetation of the park varies from sub-tropical in the lower altitudes to temperate forest with grasslands on the Khaptad plateau. The common tree species are rhododendron, chir pine, spruce, fir, maple, birch and alder. Dense stands of bamboo (nigalo), prairie flowers, and a variety of medicinal herbs occur inside the park. The common mammals of the park are leopard, musk deer, goral, yellow-throated marten, Himalayan black bear, Himalayan tahr and langur monkey. The common bird species include Impeyan pheasant (danphe), chukor, partridge, kalij pheasant, monal, red and yellow-billed blue magpie and Himalayan griffin. A variety of colorful butterflies, moths and insects are also found here. The core area of the park is an important religious site. The park is home to the Ashram of Khaptad Swami, a renowned spiritual saint, along with other religious areas and temples.

7.0 Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve (KTWR):

The KTWR comprises a total area of 175 sq. km. It was established in 1976. It is located in located in Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve is situated on the flood plains of the Sapta-Koshi River in Eastern Nepal. The reserve is a wetland of international significance. In 1987, it was declared a Ramsar site. It is home to more than 441 species of birds, 30 shore birds, 114 water birds, 20 ducks and 2 ibises. The endangered swamp partridge and Bengal florican are also found here. The Koshi Barrage is an extremely important resting-place for migratory birds numbering to 87 winter visitors.
The Koshi river which forms the major landmark of the reserve is home to 80 fish species. The endangered Gharial crocodile and Gangetic dolphin have been recorded in the river. The last surviving population of wild buffalo or arna in Nepal is found here. Its number at present is estimated to be 150. The reserve is a habitat of 20 other animal species such as hog deer, spotted deer, wild boar, blue bull and rock python. The vegetation mainly includes tall khar-pater grasslands with a few patches of khair-sissoo scrub forest and deciduous mixed riverine forest. During the monsoon, the reserve is flooded with depths ranging from 10 to 300 cm. From season to season the Koshi River changes its course. The Koshi river also know as the Sapta Koshi meaning seven great rivers collects waters from the glaciers, glacial lakes, and the monsoon rains. Embankments are constructed parallel to the river to check flooding in the surrounding villages. Sunsets over the river are phenomenal. On clear days, views of the Himalayan peaks including the Mt Makalu add beauties to the landscape.
Recognizing its global significance, the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve has been recognized as the Ramsar Site in 1987. The reserve was gazette notified in 1976. Bird watching along the eastern embankment at dusk and dawn is one of the most exciting pleasure trips in the reserve. The Arnas with their huge horns are equally impressive to look at. Elephant ride, nature walk, driving along the embankment and strolling around the villages are interesting activities.

The vegetation mainly includes tall khar-pater grasslands with a few patches of khair-sissoo scrub forest and deciduous mixed riverine forest. During the monsoon, the reserve is flooded with depths ranging from 10 to 300 cm. From season to season the Sapta-Koshi River changes its course.

8.0 Langtang National Park

Situated in the Central Himalaya, Langtang National Park is the nearest park to Kathmandu. The area extends from 32 km north of Kathmandu to the Nepal-China (Tibet) border. Langtang was designated as the first Himalayan National Park in 1970-71, and was gazetted in March 1976. While the main reason for the park is to preserve the natural environment, an equally important goal is to allow local people to follow traditional land use practices that are compatible with resource protection.
Details About the Park:
• Langtang National Park encloses the catchments of two major river systems. One draining west into the Trisuli River and the other east to the Sun Koshi River.
• Some of the best examples of graded climatic conditions in the Central Himalaya are found here. The complex topography and geology together with the varied climatic patterns have enabled a wide spectrum of vegetation types. These include small areas of subtropical forest (below 1000 m) Oaks, chirpine, maple, fir, blue pine, hemlock spruce and various species of rhododendron make up the main forest species. Above these alpine scrub and grass give way to rocks and snow.
• The variations in altitude and topography along with the existing forest cover (approx. 25% of the total area) provide habitat for a wide range of animals including wild dog, red panda, pika, muntjac, musk deer, Himalayan black bear, Himalayan tahr, ghoral, serow, rhesus monkey and common langur. The Trisuli-Bhote Koshi River forms an important route for birds on spring and autumn migrations between India and Tibet.
• About 45 villages are situated within the park boundaries, but are not under park jurisdiction. In total about 3000 households depend on park resources, primarily for wood and pasture lands.
• Culturally the area is mixed, the home of several ethnic groups . The majority of people are Tamang, an ancient Nepalese race. The Tamangs, traditionally farmers and cattle breeders, are especially well known for their weaving. Their religion is related to the Bon and the pre-Buddhist doctrines of Tibet. Today this religion has merged with the newer teachings of Tibetan Buddhism.
• The Helambu area, immediately north of Kathmandu, has many scenic villages inhabited by Sherpas and Tamangs who emigrated from Tibet.
• Over the centuries the dependence of people on natural resources has influenced the environment. Their settlements, cultivation patterns, livestock grazing, and daily use of resources which, in combination with the diversity of flora and fauna and views to the Ganesh Himal, make Langtang an attractive national park.
Seasons:
• From mid-October to mid-December and from mid-February until mid-April the weather is usually clear but cold at higher elevations. From mid-April to mid-June, it is warm but often cloudy with thunder showers, spring flowers are at their best. Summer monsoon lasts until the beginning of October. During the winter months daytime temperatures are low and snow may occur even at low levels.
Tourist Attraction:
• The Langtang Valley, which is reached from the road end at Dhunche or Sybrubensi, offers an opportunity to explore villages and gompas (monasteries) as well as glaciers, with magnificent views of the mountains.
• Permission from the lamas must be gained before visiting any gompas and a small donation is expected.
• The Langtang Valley is the most visited part of the park and for those who do not wish to camp, accommodation in lodges is available.
• Gosainkunda, an area of high altitude lakes, is reached either from Dhunche or from Sundarijal in the eastern part of Kathmandu Valley. Thousands of Hindu pilgrims visit these lakes during Janai Purnima festivals in the month of August. Gosainkunda lake is believed to have been created by Lord Shiva.
• Simple lodging is now available along the routes from Sundarijal and Dhunche to Gosainkunda. National Park fuel regulations are strictly enforced so fuel and camping gear must be carried.
• Outstanding views to Langtang Lirung (7246 m) , Himal Chuli (7864 m) are visible from the trail. The route from Dhunche passes a Buddhist monastery, Sing Gompa.
• An alternative route from the Langtang Valley to Kathmandu crosses the Ganja La pass (5106 m) This pass is difficult and dangerous when snow covered. It is generally open from April to November, but unusual weather can alter its condition at any time. Essentials for crossing the Ganja La are a tent, alpine equipment, food and fuel as well as guide who knows the trail.
• The Helambu circuit, from Sundarijal to Tharepati, barely enters the national park but is nevertheless an interesting route passing through several Bhotia villages and without ascending to more than 3400 m. From this trail it is possible to connect with Gosainkunda and eastern parts of the park (Panch Pokhari).
How to Get There:
• Public bus or taxi reach Dhunche (Park H.Q.) via Trisuli Bazaar from Kathmandu (approx. 7-8 hrs. ) A seasonal road reaches Syabrubensi.
• Alternative routes from Kathmandu are public bus to Sundarijal or Melamchighat . From either point, trek through Helambu to Gosainkunda via Laurebina pass or cross Ganja La pass (5106m) to reach Langtang Valley .
Important Points:
• Local customs should be respected and shorts for woman are not acceptable attire.
• Only local people are allowed to cut limited wood for fuel. Visitors are required to use kerosene or similar liquid of gas fuel, purchased in Dhunche or outside the park. Please make sure your porters also use kerosene.
• Mountain sickness can affect anyone and must be taken seriously. To allow your body to become acclimatized to high altitudes, do not ascend more than 300 m per day above 3000 m.
• There are no medical facilities in the park. Carry a comprehensive first aid kit including medicines for intestinal problems and chest infections.
• Bring sufficient warm clothing so that you do not have to rely on fires for warmth.
• There is a park sub-office in Shermathang on the south/eastern boundary in the Helambu area.
• The Park has two lodges in Langtang Valley: at Ghora Tabela and Kyanjin. Both are run on a concession basis.
• There is a radio at the Park headquarters at Dhunche and at the guard post in Ghora Tabela. At the Yeti Guest House in Kyanjin Gompa there is a satellite phone which can be used in an emergency. Helicopter evacuation is possible, but not reliable, and is only arranged at the patient's expense.
Entry Fees into Langtang National Park:
The park Headquarters is at Dhunche, and a check post at Ghora Tabela. All visitors must stop at either place to pay an Entrance Fee, and are required to show your passport.
• National Park Fees per person per entry:
• For Nepali Nationals Free
• For SAARC Nationals Rs 100
• For Foreign Nationals Rs 1000
• Children under 10 years Free
• Be sure to keep your Entry Permit as it might be checked later by the park guards.
• Further information and advice is available at the park HQ. and Entrance Station.

9. Lumbini World Herirtage Site:

Lumbini, the Birth Place of Lord Buddha, is the holiest pilgrimage of the Buddhist world. Because of its immense historical and archeological importance, Lumbini is listed as a "World Heritage Site" by UNESCO and is declared as a "Fountain of World Peace" by World Buddhist Federation WBF. Many countries and leading Buddhist institutions have constructed magnificent monasteries and monuments in Lumbini garden reflecting their respective indigenous architecture. This multi-culture endeavor enhance Lumbini as an International Buddhist pilgrimage center. Lumbini is a place less known to many but a destination worth a visit to simply come to experience an ambiance of spiritualism. While in Lumbini you can forget the tense and materialistic urban life and live a few blissful days of absolute peace and tranquility in touch with your inner spirituality. Buddha Maya Gardens makes sure that your wish to be in touch with the simple aesthetics of life is fulfilled.

10.0 Makalu Barun National Park Conservation Area:
The MBCA comprises a total area of 830 sq km. It is located in Khotang and Shankhuwashabha districts of Nepal.
High in the heart of the eastern Himalayan, seven valleys radiate from Mt. Makalu, the world's fifth highest peak. These valleys, particularly the Barun valley, treasure some of the last remaining pristine forest and alpine meadows of Nepal. From the bottom of the Arun valley, at just 435 m above sea level, the Himalayas rise to the snow-capped tip of Makalu 8463 m within a 40 km distance. Within this wide range of altitudes and climates, the Makalu-Barun area contains some of the richest and most diverse pockets of plants and animals in Nepal, elsewhere lost to spreading human habitation.
Nestled in the lower reaches of these valleys are communities of Rai, Sherpa, and Shingsawa (Bhotia) farmers. Though economically poor and isolated, they retain a rich cultural heritage. They hold the key to the preservation of the unique biological and cultural treasures of the Makalu-Barun area.
The Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area was established in 1992 as Nepal's eighth national park and the first to include and adjacent inhabited conservation area as a buffer. A new park management approach encourages local people to become actively involved in protecting the forests and natural resources upon which their lives depend, and in conserving their own rich cultural heritage. Traditional resource management systems, such as community controlled grazing and forest guardianship, are being strengthened and low level technologies introduced where appropriate. Working in collaboration with an American NGO, Woodlands Mountain Institute, His Majesty's Government, Nepal is striving to improve local living standards through infrastructure, educational and income-generating activities.
Covering 2330 sq. km Makalu-Barun is a vital component of the greater Mount Everest ecosystem which includes Nepal's 1,148 sq. km Sagarmatha (Mount Everest) National Park to the west and the 35000 sq. km Comolangma Nature Preserve in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China to the north.
Details About the Park:
• Most of the Makalu-Barun National Park is a remote wildness, with just two small settlements and seasonal herding in high pastures. Historically, few foreigners have visited the area except for the occasional climbing expedition.
• The incredibly steep topography and abundant monsoon rains (1000 to 4000 mm per year) of the eastern Himalayan support unusually diverse bioclimatic zones and a rich storehouse of medicinal and useful plants. Alpine pastures above 4000 m contain the religiously important dwarf rhododendron and juniper, aromatic herbs and delicate wildflowers, including 47 different varieties of orchids. Subalpine forests of fir, birch and rhododendron, and temperate stands of oak, maple and magnolia thrive between 2-4000 m. Luxuriant orchids drape the chestnut and pine forests of the subtropical zone (1-2000 m) and sal forests reach their northernmost limit within Nepal along the banks of the Arun (below 1000 m).
• The park has 400 species of birds, including the spotted wren babbler and the olive ground warbler. These two species have never been seen in Nepal before.
• There are many wild animals including the endangered red panda, Himalayan black bear and the clouded leopard. Other wildlife found in the park are: ghoral, tahr, wild boar, barking deer, Himalayan marmot and weasel, common langur monkey and the serow.
• The Arun River gushing through the park has around 84 varieties of fish including salmon.
Strict Nature Reserve:
• The inaccessible lower Barun valley, a glacier-fed tributary to the Arun river, and its tributary the Saldima, flow through the most pristine area in the Park and thus have been designated as a Strict Nature Reserve, the first in Nepal. Here natural ecosystems and processes will be protected in an undisturbed state for scientific study, environmental monitoring, education, and the maintenance of genetic resources.
The Conservation Area:
• Some 32,000 people of ethnically divers backgrounds live in the Conservation Area. The majority belong to various tribes of Rais and practice an ancient religion which reinforces harmony with nature. Shingsawas and Sherpas. Bhotia people originally from Tibet, live at higher elevations and carry on Buddhist traditions. A handful of other hill tribes including Gurung, Tamang, Magar, Newar, Brahmins, Chhetris and occupational castes live in the lower elevations.
• These people live in isolated villages much as they have for centuries. As farmers, herders and seasonal traders, their livelihoods depend heavily upon forest resources for animal fodder, fuel, food, housing materials, fertilizers, medicine and other creative uses, clothing spun from allo (nettles), paper made form lokta (daphne bark) and countless items made from bamboo including furniture, containers, baskets, musical instruments, raincoats, and aqueducts.
How to Get There:
• Fly from Kathmandu to either Lukla, Phaplu, Lamidanda, Bhojpur and Tumlingtar airstrips, and then trek to reach the park.
Entry fees into Makalu Barun National Park and Conservation Area:
• National Park entry fees per person per entry:
• For Nepali Nationals Free
• For SAARC Nationals Rs 100
• For Foreign Nationals Rs 1000
• Children under 10 years Free

Mustang Conservation Area
Introduction:
In March 1992, the 'forbidden' kingdom of Mustang was opened to the outside world. Now, for the first time in recent history, foreign travelers are able to visit La Manthang, the seat of an ancient kingdom dating back to the 15th century. The Kingdom of La is situated along the north central border of Nepal north of the main range of the Himalaya's in the upper reaches of Mustang District. Lo and the area directly to its south, called Baragaon, which both fall within Upper Mustang, can be claimed as one of the most outstanding areas of the Himalaya.
The people of Upper Mustang are called Bhotias and those from Lo are called Lobas. They speak various dialects of Tibetan. Historically, their art and culture flourished due to contact with traders, monks and religious masters passing between Tibet and India, or between Ladakh and Bhutan.
The climate and geography of Upper Mustang are nearly identical to those of Western Tibet and as such, they are dramatically different from the temperate and tropical areas of the south side of the Himalayas. The dry, wind swept ecology of this Trans-Himalayan region is extremely fragile. Fuel wood is virtually non-existent, water is scare, the agricultural land yields insufficient food grains and the marginal and grasslands support only limited numbers of livestock and wildlife. With the influx of tourists, the already pressured desert environment risks further degradation.
In addition, although the culture has flourished in contact with other religious and cultural centers of the Himalayas, its sudden exposure to other worlds beyond its high plateau may create a negative impact on the society.
In order to keep the destructive environmental and cultural impact of tourism in Upper Mustang to an absolute minimum, the Ministry of Tourism has decided to develop the area as a model eco-tourism area.
The Ministry of Tourism, has proposed that part of the revenue generated from trekking royalties to Upper Mustang, US$700 (per person) for 10 days and US$70 (per person) for each additional day, be earmarked for use in UMCDP to sponsor environmental and cultural preservation efforts and community development works. An Upper Mustang Development Fund has been established with the financial support of the Ministry of Tourism and the American Himalayan Foundation, to raise the living standard of the people living in Upper Mustang area. The main aim is to carry out development activities in the remotest villages. UMDP's areas of operations are centered around agriculture, animal husbandry, health and education

12.0 Parsa Wildlife Researve (PWR)

The PWR comprises a total area of 499 sq. km. It was established in 1984. It is located in Parsa Wildlife Reserve is situated in the lowland Terai of Nepal adjoining Royal Chitwan National Park in the west. The reserve has a sub-tropical monsoon climate. The dominant landscape of the reserve is the Churiya hills ranging from 750m to 950m, east to west. In the Churiya hills, chir pine grows along the rivers and streams. Sabai grass, a commercially important species, grows well along the southern face of the Churiya hills. The forests of the reserve consist of tropical and subtropical vegetation with sal trees comprising 90% of it. Other trees found are khair, sissoo and the silk cotton tree. The reserve supports a good population of the wild elephant, tiger, leopard, sloth bear, gaur, blue bull and wild dog. Other common animals are sambar deer, chital deer, hog deer, barking deer, langur monkey, striped hyena, ratel, palm civet and jungle cat. Many species of snakes are found in the reserve due to its tropical climate. The species include king cobra, common cobra, krait, rat snake and the python. There are about 300 species of birds found in the reserve. Some of the common ones include giant hornbill, peafowl, red jungle fowl, flycatchers and woodpeckers.

13.0 Rara National Park

The Rara National Park comprises a total of 106 sq km. It is located in Mugu district of Nepal.Rara National Park is located in northwest Nepal about 371 km air distance from Kathmandu. The park headquarters is about 32 km north to Jumla. Most of the park including Lake Rara lies in Mugu District, with a small area in Jumla District of Karnali Zone. This is the smallest park in Nepal (106 sq. km) with the country's biggest lake (10.8 sq. km) at an elevation of 2990 m. The lake is oval shaped with an eastwest axis and has a maximum length of 5 km and a width of 3 km. The maximum depth of the lake is 167 m. The park was gazetted in 1967 to conserve the unique beauty of Lake Rara and to protect a representative sample of flora and fauna of the Humla-Jumla region.
The elevation of the park ranges from 1800 m to 4048 m, Chuchemara Lekh is the highest point. The lake is in a deep basin, the northern and eastern rims which form part of the park boundary. The lake drains to Mugu Karnali River via Nija Khola. The lakeside pasture in the south gives way to the steep slopes of Gurchi Lekh, its crest culminating at Chuchemara in a horse-shoe shaped opening to the south drained by the Jiun River. On the west, river valleys cut through a ridge which form the natural boundary to the park.
Vegetation and Wildlife:
• The park contains mainly coniferous forest. The area around the lake is dominated by blue pine (Pinus excelsa) up to 3200 m, Rhododendron (Rhododendron arboretum), black juniper (Juniperus wallichiana), west Himalayan spruce (picea smithina), oak (Quercus semecarpefolia) and Himalayan cypress (Cupressus torulosa) are other species. Above this elevation the vegetation is replaced by a mixed coniferous forest of pine, spruce and fir. At about 3350 m pine and spruce give way to fir, oak and birch forest. Other deciduous tree species found in the park are Indian horse-chestnut (Aesculus indica), walnut (Junglans regia) and Himalayan poplar (Populus ciliata).
• A small portion of the park serves as an ideal habitat for musk deer. Himalayan black bear (Selenarctos thibetanus), leopard (Panthera pardus), musk deer (Moschus moschiferous), goral (Nemorhaedus goral), jackal (Canis aureus), Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus), yellow throated marten (Martes flavigula), wild dog (Cuon alpinus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), common langur (Presbytes entillus), rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) and common otter (Lutra lutra) are other species found in the park. The resident Gallinaceous birds and migrant waterfowls are of interest to park visitors. Coots (Fulica atra) are plentiful in the lake, many staying year-round. Great-crested grebe (Podiceps cristatus), black-necked grebe (Podiceps nigricollis), red-crested pochard (Netta rufina), mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), common teal (Anas crecca), merganser (Mergus merganser) and gulls are seen during winter. Other common birds in the park are snow cock (Tetraogallus himalayenis), chukor partridge (Alectoris chukor), Impeyan pheasant (Lophophorus impejanus), kalij pheasant (Lophura leuco elana) and blood pheasant (Ithaginis cruentus).
Seasons:
• Summer is pleasant, however, the winter brings cold temperatures and heavy snowfall (up to one meter). The best time to visit is October to December or March to May. The winter is quite severe with ground frost occurring from October.
• December through March is the time of snowfall with the temperature dropping to below freezing point. High passes remain closed by heavy snowfall during this time. The month of April brings the warmer weather and monsoon season is June to August.
Local Settlements:
• There are no settlements inside the park. Residents of two villages, Rara and Chhapru, were moved out in 1976 and resettle in Bardia District. Villages around the park are Jyari, Pina, Topla, Tuma, Ruma and Murma. The local economy is based on agriculture, primarily potatoes, buckwheat, beans, barley and wheat. Hindus dominate the community composition.
Tourist Attraction:
• Lake Rara is the most beautiful and interesting site in the park. Bird lovers enjoy winter with the migratory birds. Hundreds of varieties of ground flowers form a colorful carpet in summer. Conventional currents do not allow the lake to freeze in winter. Chuchemara Peak (4048 m) on the southern side of lake presents a magnificent scene with the gleaming blue water within a basin of well forested hills. Other summits are Ruma Kand (3731 m) and Malika Kand (3444 m) to the north of the lake. From these peaks one can enjoy the view of the lake, peaks to the south and beautiful Mugu Karnali River valley to the north.
How to Get There:
• Rara National Park can be visited either from Jumla (2.5 days trek) or from Surkhet (10 days trek).
Important Points:
• Flora and fauna are fully protected and must not be disturbed.
• Visitors entering the park should be self-sufficient in fuel supply (kerosene). Use of firewood is strictly prohibited.
• Camping inside the park except in designated areas is strictly prohibited.
• Movement inside the park before sunrise and after sunset is prohibited.
Entry fees into Rara National Park:
All visitors must pay a park entry fee at Bhulbhule guard post or at park HQ
• National Park fees per person per entry:
• For Nepali Nationals Free
• For SAARC Nationals Rs 100
• For Foreign Nationals Rs 1000
• Children below 10 years Free
• Be sure to keep your entry ticket with you as it might be checked by the park personnel.

14.0 Sagarmatha National park (SgNP):

Sagarmatha National Park lies to the northeast of Kathmandu. The park was gazetted in July 1976. It covers an area of 1,148 sq. km. of Himalayan ecological zone. The park includes the upper catchment areas of the Dudh Kosi and Bhote Kosi Rivers. The park is largely composed of the rugged terrain and gorges of the high Himalayas ranging from 2,845m at Monju to the top of the world, Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) at 8,848m above sea level. Other peaks above 6,000m are Lhotse, Cho-Oyu, Thamserku, Nuptse, Amadablam, and Pumori.UNESCO listed the park as a World Heritage Site in 1979 for its unique natural, cultural and landscape characteristics.

Sagarmatha National Park covers an area of 1148 square kilometers in the Khumbu region of Nepal. The Park includes the highest peak in the world. Mt. Sagarmatha (Everest 8848 m.) and several other well known peaks such as Lhotse, Cho Oyu, Pumori, Ama Dablam, Thamerku, Kwangde, Kangtaiga and Gyachyung Kang.
As Mt. Sagarmatha and the surrounding area is of major significance not only to Nepal but to the rest of the world, its status as a national park since 1976 is intended to safeguard its unique cultural, physical and scientific values through positive management based on sound conservation principles.
Geology:
• According to the continental-drift theory, the Himalaya were uplifted at the end of the Mesozoic Era, some 60 millions years ago. The resulting young mountains of this region are still rising and the net growth is a few centimeters per century.
Vegetation, Wild Animals and Birds:
• Vegetation in the park varies from pine and hemlock forests at lower altitudes, fir, juniper, birch and rhododendron woods at mid-elevations, scrub and alpine plant communities higher up and bare rock and snow above tree line. The famed bloom of rhododendrons occurs during the spring (April and May) although much of the. flora is most colorful during the monsoon season (June to August). .
• The wild animals most likely to be seen in the park are the Himalayan tahr, goral, serow, musk deer and Himalayan black bear. Other mammals are weasels, martens. Himalayan mouse hare (Pika), jackals and langur.
• The park provides a habit for at least 118 species of birds. The most common birds to be seen are the Impeyen pheasant (the national bird of Nepal), blood pheasant, cheer pheasant, jungle crow, red billed and yellow billed coughs and snow pigeon. Fairly common birds are the Himalayan griffon, lammergier, snow partridge, skylark and many others.
Seasons:
• The summer climate is cool and wet and winter is cold and dry. Almost all of the annual precipitation, averaging less than 1000 mm, falls during the summer monsoon, from end of May to September. Climatically, the best time to visit the park is between October and May, except for December to February when, daytime temperatures often drop below 0 C and there is heavy snowfall.
Local Inhabitants:
• The park is populated by approximately 3000 of the famed Sherpa people, originating from Tibet in the late 15th or early 16th century A.D. Their lives are interwoven with the teaching of Buddhism. The main settlements are Namche Bazaar, Khumjung, Khunde, Thame, Thyangboche, Pangboche and Phortse. There are also temporary settlements in the upper valleys where the Sherpas graze their livestock during the summer season.
• The economy of the Khumbu Sherpa community has traditionally been agriculture, livestock herding and trade with Tibet. With the coming of international mountaineering expeditions in the 1950s, the region also attracted larger numbers of foreign trekkers. Today the Sherpa economy is becoming increasingly dependent on tourism.
How to Get There:
• Fly in and out of Lukla, followed by 15 days walk.
• Bus to Jiri and trek for 21 days, flying back to Kathmandu from Lukla.
• Fly in and out of Phaplu and trek for 16 days.
• Fly in to Tumlingtar from Kathmandu and a 10 day walk to the park.
Important Points:
• There are trekker lodges with food available in places like Namche Bazaar, Thyangboche, Pheriche and Lobuche and along most of the main trekking routes the small villages have basic accomodation.
• There is the Himalayan Rescue Association (HRA) at Pheriche which has medical facilities and also accepts credit card as payment.
• The National Park ranges from 3000 m to 8000 m and above in altitude. Visitors need to be careful and aware of High Altitude sickness (HAS). Do not climb to fast or too high in one day, no more than 400 m in a day. Signs of HAS include: headache, difficulty in sleeping, breathlessness, loss of appetite, nauseousness and general tiredness.
Entry Fees into Sagarmatha (Everest) National Park:
At Monjo there is the Sagarmatha National Park enterance station where you will have to show your passport and pay a National Park fee.
• National Park fee per person per entry:
• For Nepali Nationals Free
• For SAARC Nationals Rs 100
• For Foreign Nationals Rs1000
• Children under 10 years Free

15.0 Shey Phoksundo National Park (S-PNP)

The SPNP comprises a total area: 3,555 sq. km. It was established: 1984 It is located in Shey Phoksundo National Park is situated in the trans-Himalayan region of Northwestern Nepal. The park is the largest national park and contains the highest lake, Lake Phoksundo, in Nepal. The park contains luxuriant forests mainly composed of blue pine, spruce, cypress, poplar, fir and birch. The Jugdual River valley consists mostly of Quercus (oak) species. The trans-Himalayan area has near-desert type vegetation consisting of dwarf juniper and caragana shrubs.The park provides prime habitat for the endangered snow leopard and the blue sheep. Other common animals found in the park include goral, Himalayan tahr, serow, leopard, wolf, jackal, Himalayan black bear, Himalayan weasel, Himalayan mouse hare, yellow-throated marten, langur and rhesus monkey. The park is equally rich in many species of birds such as Impeyan pheasant (danphe), blood pheasant, cheer pheasant, red and yellow billed cough, rave, jungle crow and snow partridge.

16.0 Shivapure National Park (ShNP):

The Shivapuri National Park (144 sq km) is the major watershed supplying drinking water to the capital city of Kathmandu. The Park is lying in the transition zone between the subtropical and temperate climate, its diverse vegetation is composed of pine, oak, rhododendron and others. The park is rich in wild mushrooms (129 species). The wildlife found in the national park includes Himalayan black bear, leopard, jungle cat, and rhesus monkeys. The park is home to over 177 species of birds including 9 threatened species, over 100 species of butterflies including rare and threatened. The park has several rain-red rivers that are the major source of drinking water for the capital city. The park produces 227 million liters water per day of which 30 million liters per day are collected for consumption. Towering over the Kathmandu valley, the Shivapuri National Park is a fog-free zone. During winter while Kathmandu and the other towns and settlements of the valley are still dark under the thick cold fog, the park get sparkling sunlight. It receives regular westerly winds blowing from the Trishuli river valley. Situated only 12 km to the north of Kathmandu, the park is the main entrance of the trekking routes to Gosainkunda, Helambu, Kagarkot and the Langtang National Park. The major routes include Pani Muhan to Shivapuri peak (2,732 meter above mean sea level), Nagi gumba to the peak, Nagi gumba to Baghdwar, Sundarijal to Chisapani. The breathtaking views of the high Himalayan peaks can be seen from the top of the Shivapuri mountain.

The park is a spiritually significant for the popular shrines and meditation centers in the natural surroundings. The park consists of several religious and cultural heritage sites for the Hindus as well as Buddhists. They include the peaks of Shivapuri, Manichur, Tarkeswor and the source of the Bagmati and Bishnumati rivers. The other famous shrines that are worth visiting are Budhanilkantha, Sundarimai and the Nagi monastery attract thousands of pilgrims during festive seasons.

17.0 Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve (SWR):

Previously Known As Royal Suklapahnta Wildlife Reserave). The SWR comprises a total area of 305 sq. km. It was established in 1976. It is located in Royal Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve is situated in the southern Terai of Far-Western Nepal. Predominant sal forests associated with asna, simal, karma, khair and sisso are found along the riversides of the reserve. Large grasslands, phantas, are found within the reserve. Main grass species include Imperate cylindrica and Saccharum heteropogon, used extensively by the local people for thatching.The reserve provides prime habitat for swamp deer, with an estimated population of 2000 found here. Other animals in the reserve are wild elephant, tiger, hispid hare, blue bull, leopard, chital, hog deer and wild boar. A total of 200 bird species have been recorded. Many grassland birds along with the endangered Bengal florican can be seen in the phantas. Marsh mugger, Indian python, monitor lizard, cobra, krait and rat snake are recorded here

Medicinal Plants of Nepal and Yarshagumba

2007-04-03T16:18:00.000-07:00

Medicinal Plants of Nepal and Yarshagumba

Nepal is a small country, covering an area of 147,181 Km². The geography of Nepal ranges from flat lowlands, lying below 60 meters in elevation, to the top of the world at 8,848 meters. The dense tropical broadleaf forests of Terai in the south give way to subtropical and temperate broadleaf and coniferous forests in the middle of the country. The north is characterized by sub-alpine coniferous forests, alpine pastures and shrublands, and magnificent frozen peaks with many glaciers and glacial lakes.

Floral Diversity in Nepal
Due to its geographic and climatic diversity, the relatively small country of Nepal—occupying just 0.1% of the world's total land mass—is surprisingly rich in biological diversity. Nepal boasts 10,167 plant species, 5,891 of which are flowering. The country ranks between 25th and 30th on the global scale and 11th on the continental scale for richness in floral diversity. Nepal's flora comprises 2.5% of the total global flora. Of the flowering species, 5% are endemic to Nepal and 30% are endemic to the Himalayan Mountains. Till now 5636 species, 206 subspecies, 599 verities and 60 forma have been recorded from Nepal. To date about 6501 species if Phenerogams (Angiosperm and Gymnosperms) are recorded from Nepal.
As such, Nepal is very rich in biological resources, including native medicinal plants. These plants are an integral part of traditional eastern medicine. The Ayurbedic (homeopathic) health care system depends solely on the use of these highly valued native medicinal plants.

Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Nepal
The medicinal and aromatic plants database for Nepal includes 1,624 species of wild, domesticated, and naturalized plant species. Of these, 1,533 are flowering plants and 92 are non-flowering.
Eastern Homeopathic Treatment Based on Himalayan Native Medicinal Plants
The traditional health care system based on Himalayan native plants has a long history. Pieces of literature written in the Nepali, Newari, and Sanskrit languages contain records of Nepali medicinal plants. The original "Saushrut Nighantu," written on palm leaves in Newari script and Sanskrit verses during Mandeva Era 301 (879 AD), is said to be the oldest of these books.

Protected Plants of Nepal

Under the Forest Act 1993 and article 70 His Majesty’s’ Government of Nepal (HMG) has notified following restriction since 12th Feb 2001

Ban on collection use, sale, distribution, transportation and export of the following medicinal herbs: 1) Dactylorhiza hatagirea (Nepali-Pancha ounle), 2) Juglans regia (Walnut-Nepali-"Okhar ko bokara", 3) Picrorhiza scrophulariflroa (Gentian, Nepali-Kutaki).
Ban on export outside the country, Except the processed product on permission of Department of Forest: 1) Nardostachys grandiflora(English-Spkenard, Nepail-Jatamansi), 2) Rauwolfia sepentina (Serpentina, Nepali-Serpagandha),3) Cinnnamimum glausecens (Nepali-Sugandhakokila), 4) Valeriana wallichi(English-Indian Valerin, Nepai-Sugandhawal), 5) Lichen species (Nepali-Jhyau), 6) Rock exude (Nepali- Shilajeet), 7) Abies spectabilis (Fir, Nepali-Talispatra), 8) Taxes wallichiana (Nepali- Loth Salla, English-Himalayan Yew), 9) Cordyceps sinensis (Nepali- Yarsa gomba ).
Trees, Ban on transportation, export, felling for commercial purpose: 1) Michaelia champaca (Nepali-Champ),2) Acacia catechu(Nepali-Khayer, English-Cutch tree), 3) Shorea robusta(Nepali-Sal), 4) Bombax malabaricum (Nepali-Simal, English- Silk cotton tree), 5) Dpterocarpus marsupium(Nepali-Satisal), 6) Dalbergia latifolia (Nepali-Bijayasal), 7) Juglans sp. (Nepali- Okhar, English- Walnut tree)

Yarshagumba

Cordyceps sinensis: (Yarshagumba) Yarshagumba
Venacular name: Yarsagumba, Jibanbuti
Family: Clavicipitaceae
Distribution: Sub-alpine to alpine region of Nepal
Habitat: Meadows

Introduction:

The Himalayan region of Nepal is famous for different types of medicinal plants. Yarshagumba is one of them. The literal meaning of Yarshagumba is summer plants, winter insect. Yarshagumba is currently very popular due to its use as aphrodisiac (sex stimulant) and tonic. Hence its collection and trade is increasing. Considering its importance, the Department of Plant Resources included a programme named as "Study of Yarshagumba in the natural habitat" in its overall programmes. Accordingly, Mr. Kuber Jung Malla and Mr. Hari Krishan Chhetry Asst. Scientific Officer initiated survey of Yarshgumba in Dolpa district. They covered the natural extent of distribution between 2800-4500 meters.

Details of field based information:

Occurrence : 2800-4500 meters
Availability : 2500 plants per hectare
Soil quality : pH 7-7.5
Associated plants : Rhododendron anthopogon, Anemone sp., Anaphalis sp.,Carese sp., etc.
Collection time: April/May – June/July
Germination time : April – June/July
Weight : 0.3 to 0.5 gm. per plant
Resercah need: The Department is attempting to culture fungus from spores on the Yarshagumba

Economy of Nepal

2007-03-26T01:05:00.000-07:00

Economical of Nepal
Nepal ranks among the world's poorest countries with a per capita income of around $300. Based on national calorie/GNP criteria, an estimated 31% of the population is below the poverty line. An isolated, agrarian society until the mid-20th century, Nepal entered the modern era in 1951 without schools, hospitals, roads, telecommunications, electric power, industry, or a civil service. The country has, however, made progress toward sustainable economic growth since the 1950s and is committed to a program of economic liberalization.
Nepal launched its tenth five-year economic development plan in 2002; its currency has been made convertible; and fourteen state enterprises have been privatized, seven liquidated and two dissolved. Foreign aid accounts for more than half of the development budget. The Government of Nepal has shown an increasing commitment to fiscal transparency, good governance, and accountability. Also in 2002, the government began to prioritize development projects and eliminate wasteful spending. In consultation with civil society and donors, the government cut 160 development projects that were driven by political patronage.
Agriculture remains Nepal's principal economic activity, employing over 76% of the population and providing 39% of GDP. Only about 25% of the total area is cultivable; another 33% is forested; most of the rest is mountainous. Rice and wheat are the main food crops. The lowland Terai region produces an agricultural surplus, part of which supplies the food-deficient hill areas. Because of Nepal’s dependence on agriculture, the annual monsoon rain, or lack of it, strongly influences economic growth.
Nepal’s exports increased 9.32% in FY 2004/05 compared to an increase of 7.78% in FY 2003/04. Imports grew by 7.08% in FY 2004/05 compared with 5.94% in FY 2003/04. The increase in exports is marginal due to the fact that there has been a significant drop in Nepal's main export, ready-made textile products. The trade deficit for FY 2003/04 was $1.0 billion, which widened to $1.18 billion in FY 2004/05. Real GDP growth during 1996-2002 averaged less than 5%. Real growth experienced a one-time jump in 1999, rising to 6%, before slipping back below 5%. In 2002, the GDP recorded a negative growth rate of 0.33%, largely because of the Maoist insurgency. GDP grew 3.1% in 2003 and 3.26% in 2004, and again slipped to 2.04% in 2005, according to Nepal Rastra Bank (Nepal's Central Bank).
Despite its growing trade deficit, Nepal traditionally has a balance of payments (BOP) surplus due to money sent home from Nepalis working abroad. In FY 2004/05, however, Nepal recorded a much lower balance of payments surplus of $80 million, as compared to $217.7 in FY 2003/04. The lower BOP surplus in FY 2004/05 is mainly attributable to the lower inflow of net government loans. The decline is primarily in the capital account, due primarily to a slow down in development activities funded by foreign grants and loans. Nepal receives substantial amounts of external assistance from India, the United Kingdom, the United States, Japan, Germany, and the Scandinavian countries. Several multilateral organizations--such as the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, and the UN Development Program--also provide assistance. Such assistance has decreased substantially in FY 2004/05 after the royal takeover of February 1, 2005 and also because the ongoing Maoist conflict has seriously undermined development activities throughout most of Nepal. On April 23, 2004 Nepal became the 147th member of the World Trade Organization (WTO).
With eight of the world's ten highest mountain peaks--including Mt. Everest at 8,848 m (29,000 ft)--Nepal is a tourist destination for hikers and mountain climbers. Yet a worsening internal security situation and a global economic slowdown threaten the tourism industry. Figures from the Nepal Tourism Board showed a 12.8% increase in arrivals in 2004, but these are well below numbers during 1999, the peak tourism year. Recent tourist arrivals, during the Maoist cease-fire, show a recovery from the massive decline experienced during the first five months of 2005; however, 2005 annual arrivals fell 3.9% short of total arrivals in 2004. The fragile security situation, particularly after the Maoists ended their unilateral cease-fire on January 2, 2006, is expected to alter the trend of growth in tourist arrivals witnessed during recent months.
Swift rivers flowing south through the Himalayas have massive hydroelectric potential to service domestic needs and growing demand from India. Only about 1% of Nepal's hydroelectric potential is currently tapped. Several hydroelectric projects, at Kulekhani and Marsyangdi, were completed in the early to late 1980s. In the early 1990s, one large public-sector project, the Kali Gandaki A (144 megawatts--MW), and a number of private projects were planned; some have been completed. Kali Gandaki A started commercial operation in August 2002. The most significant privately financed hydroelectric projects currently in operation are the Khimti Khola (60 MW) and Bhote Koshi (36 MW) projects.
The environmental impact of Nepal's hydroelectric projects has been limited by the fact that most are "run-of-river," with only one storage project undertaken to date. The private-sector West Seti (750 MW) storage project is dedicated to electricity exports. An Australian company, which signed a power purchase agreement with the Indian Power Trading Corporation in September 2002, is promoting the project for implementation along build-own-transfer lines. Negotiations with India for a power purchase agreement have been underway for several years, but agreement on pricing and capital financing remains a problem. The Government of Nepal has taken up the issue of project financing for the West Seti project with the EXIM Bank of China. Currently, domestic demand for electricity is increasing at 8%-10% a year.
Population pressure on natural resources is increasing. Overpopulation is already straining the "carrying capacity" of the middle hill areas, particularly the Kathmandu Valley, resulting in the depletion of forest cover for crops, fuel and fodder, and contributing to erosion and flooding. Additionally, water supplies within the Kathmandu Valley are not considered safe for consumption, and disease outbreaks are not uncommon. Although steep mountain terrain makes exploitation difficult, mineral surveys have found small deposits of limestone, magnesite, zinc, copper, iron, mica, lead, and cobalt.
Progress has been achieved in education, health, and infrastructure. A countrywide primary education system is under development, and Tribhuvan University has several campuses. Although eradication efforts continue, malaria has been controlled in the fertile but previously uninhabitable Terai region in the south. Kathmandu is linked to India and nearby hill regions by an expanding highway network.
Economical data
• GDP (2004/05): $7.37 billion.
• Annual growth rate of real GDP: 2.04% in FY 2004/05.
• Per capita income (Gross National Product): $300 in FY 2004/05.
• Avg. inflation rate (Consumer Price Index): 7.8% in Oct. 2005.
• Natural resources: Water, hydropower, scenic beauty, limited but fertile agricultural land, timber.
• Agriculture (39.2% of GDP): Products--rice, wheat, maize, sugarcane, oilseed, jute, millet, potatoes.
• Cultivated land--25%.
• Industry (11% of GDP): Types--carpets, pashmina, garments, cement, cigarettes, bricks, sugar, soap, matches, jute, hydroelectric power.
• Trade (2004/05): Exports--$821.84 million: carpets, pashmina, garments.
• Major markets--Germany and the U.S. Imports--$2.00 billion: manufactured goods.
• Major supplier--India.
• Central gov. budget (FY 2005/06): $1.79 billion; military allocation $153.73 million.
Official exchange rate (July 16, 2005): 70.9 Nepalese rupees=U.S. $1.00.
• Fiscal year: July 16-July 15.
• Work force: Agriculture--85%; industry--3%; services--11%; other--1%.

Nepal at a glance

2007-03-25T01:49:00.000-07:00

Nepal at a glance
By: Rameshwar Singh Pande, 2007

1.0 Nepal- basic information:
1.1 Geography:
Nepal is a landlocked multiethnic, multilingual, multi-religious country situated in the lap of the Mount Everest, between India and China. The total land area is 147181 sq km (56136 sq mile). It has in rectangular shape, stretches northwest to southeast between latitude 26o22 N and 30o27 N and the longitude are between 80o4 E and 88o12 E. There is a great variation in the climatic and ecological zone within a short distance of its surface area. It is extending about 885 km in east west and 193 km (130-240 km) wide from north south. Nepal has an extreme range of altitude which ranging from 60 m to the height 8,848-m of Mount Everest.

1.2 Administrative divisions:
Nepal has been divided into five development regions, 14 zones, 75 districts, 58 municipalities and 3,913 Village Development Committees (VDCs) for administrative purpose. About 12 percent of the population live in urban areas. Out of total districts mountains comprise 16 districts, Hills 39 and Terai 20 districts (Annex - 2.1). The grouping of the districts is primarily based on administrative purpose rather than ecology and/or altitudional range.
1.2.1 Cities:
• Capital--Kathmandu municipality (5 districts) (pop. 1.5 million).
• Other cities-
o Biratnagar,
o Patan,
o Pokhara,
o Birganj,
o Dharan,
o Nepalganj.

1.3 People & Population:

1.3.1 The people
Noun--Nepali (sing.) or Nepalese (plural). Adjective--Nepalese or Nepali.

On the lap of the southern slopes of the Himalayan Mountains, the Kingdom of Nepal is as ethnically diverse as its terrain of fertile plains, broad valleys, and the highest mountain peaks in the world. The Nepalese are descendants of three major migrations from India, Tibet, and central Asia. Among the earliest inhabitants were the Newars of the Kathmandu Valley and aboriginal Tharus in the southern Terai region. The ancestors of the Brahman and Chetri caste groups came from India, while other ethnic groups trace their origins to central Asia and Tibet, including the Gurungs and Magars in the west, Rais and Limbus in the east, and Sherpas and Bhotias in the north.
In the Terai, a part of the Ganges Basin with 20% of Nepal’s land, much of the population is physically and culturally similar to the Indo-Aryan people of northern India. People of Indo-Aryan and Mongoloid stock live in the hill region. The mountainous highlands are sparsely populated. The Kathmandu Valley, in the middle hill region, constitutes a small fraction of the nation's area but is the most densely populated, with almost 7.4% of the population.
Religion is important in Nepal--The Kathmandu Valley alone has more than 2,700 religious shrines. Nepal is about 81% Hindu. The constitution describes the country as a "Hindu Kingdom," although it does not establish Hinduism as the state religion. Buddhists account for about 11% of the population. Buddhist and Hindu shrines and festivals are respected and celebrated by all. Nepal also has small Muslim and Christian minorities. Certain animistic practices of old indigenous religions survive.
Nepali is the official language, although a dozen different languages and about 30 major dialects are spoken throughout the country. Derived from Sanskrit, Nepali is related to the Indian language, Hindi, and is spoken by about 90% of the population. Many Nepalese in government and business also speak English.
1.3.2 Population:
The estimated population of the country is 24797059, in which male is 1,24,06,222 and female is 1,23,90837 (CBS, 2004). The people are mainly of two-type a) Tibeto- Burman origin and b) Indo-Nepalese origin. These people are again divided into various ethnic group, caste, languages and religion. The Tibeto-Burman groups are mainly settled in mountains and Himalayan regions along the northern boarder. The Indo-Nepalese people are the major ethnic groups settled in southern Terai and Middle Hills.

Annual growth rate: 2.25%. Population breakdown/distribution: Rural (85.8%); female (50.1%); in the southern Terai region (49.1%); in the hills (49.1 %); in the mountains (7%). (October 15, 2005 census update by UNFPA)

1.3.3 Ethnic groups:
Nepal comprises various cast and ethnicity. The major casts are , there are Brahman, Chetri, Newar, Gurung, Magar, Tamang, Rai, Limbu, Sherpa, Tharu, and others.
There are over 64 cast/ethnic groups, which are using over 100 dialects as a mother tongue. For the convenience and based on ecology, socio-economy and settlement of the ethnic groups of the country, Nepal has been divided into three belts such as:
• Northern Belt (Mountains including high Himalayan region running along the Tibetan (China) boarder,
• Southern Belt (Terai , plain lands in foothills running along the Indian boarder, and
• Middle Belt (Hills, situated in between northern and southern region.

1.3.4 Religions:
Hinduism (80.6%), Buddhism (10.7%), Islam (4.2%), and others (4.2%).
Languages: Nepali and more than 12 others.

1.4 Education:
Years compulsory--0. Attendance--primary 80.4%, secondary 20%. Literacy--53.7% (65.1% male, 42.5% female).

1.5 Health:
Infant mortality rate--61/1,000 (in 2005). Life expectancy--61.8 years (male), 62.5 years (female).

2.0 Ecological and Socio-economic belt
The terrain: Flat and fertile in the southern Terai region; terraced cultivation and swiftly flowing mountain rivers in the central hills; and the high Himalayas in the north. Eight of the world's ten highest peaks are in Nepal. Kathmandu, the capital, is in a broad valley at 1,310 meters (4,300 ft.) elevation. These area has been divided into three major ecological zones.

2.1 Northern belt- Himal
The Northern belt (Mountains) is a high altitude Himalayas running along the Tibetan boarder. There is no clear-cut boundary between Middle hills and the main Himalayas. The Hills with an elevation ranges from 2,200 – 4,000 m considered as Mountains and the higher elevation region above this ranges is considered as Himal. The Northern belt comprises 16 districts (Annex -2.1) and the total land area occupy is about 35 percent (5186,181 ha) of Nepal. Out of the total land available in Northern belt high peaks, steep slopes, narrow valleys, rivers and other unutilised lands occupy over 41 percent. Agricultural land is only 9 percent. Over 20 percent of the land categorised as rangelands and 24 percent is under forest in this belt.

The total population in the Northern belt is only 8 percent of Nepal. The climate ranges from temperate to alpine with considerable variation in micro-environments especially in the Trans-Himalayan regions mainly due to rugged topography, varying elevation, aspects, steepness of slope and solar radiation. The farming has been done in the terrace hill slopes. Farms are small and subsistence type. Soil is of low to medium fertility level. It also contains intensive terraces for agricultural, which runs from top to bottom. Such a farming system is found to be practised up to elevation of 4,200 m. At higher altitude due to severe cold and short growing season, only one crop can be taken a year.

The north of the Annapurna and Dhaulagiri Himal has an arid, rain shadow treeless plateau, which is considered, as steppe region. The altitude ranges from 3,000 m and above. This region receives rainfall less than 200 mm a year. Crop cultivation is done in the lower region along the river terraces. Alpine rangelands are the dominant features of this belt.

Due to the limitations of the crop cultivation and extreme agro-climatic factor livestock play a crucial role in this belt. Cropping is not sufficient to meet the needs of households. The size of landholding is small and the average number of livestock per farm is about 6.8. Cropping generally confined to a single crop. The common cropping patterns are potato, buckwheat, and naked barley. In the lower elevation rice-barley is also grown. The cropping intensity is relatively low i.e. 110 percent only.

In high Himal, beyond 4,000 m crop cultivation is not possible due to severe cold. Trans-humance livestock production systems practised in this region. Large herds of Yak, Chauris and sheep and mountain goats graze on alpine rangelands during the summer season.

2.2 Southern belt- Terai
The Southern belt (Terai) is a long narrow strip of fertile alluvial land stretching east-west direction along the Indian boarder of Nepal. Its total length is approximately 880 km and about 50 km wide. Elevation ranges from 60 m up to 1,000 m. Southern belt comprises 20 districts (Annex -2.1). It occupy 23 percent (3409,863 ha) of the total land area in which 46 percent is agricultural land, 45.5 percent is under forest 2.2 percent grazing and rest others. The southern belt is highly populated area of Nepal, supporting about 47 percent of the total population.

The Southern belt has a tropical to humid subtropical climate with rainfall over 1917 mm per annum. Most of the rain occurs during monsoon (June to September). The major cultivable land is found in river terraces and the alluvial valleys.

Livestock is closely related with the farming system in this belt. The major livestock are buffalo, cattle and goats. Livestock mainly used for draft power, milk and meat production and are major sources of cash income. It is estimated that over 90 percent of the tillage work have been done by bullocks. In this belt, farming systems are predominantly rice based, which is grown during the monsoon season. During the winter major crops are wheat, mustard and other crops such as maize, tobacco, chickpea, lentil, finger millet and forage crops like oat and berseem are being cultivated in recent decades. The average cropping intensity is 149 percent. Although the crop yields are low, the total production is usually sufficient to meet the farmer’s need. Some surplus food grains are exported to the other part of the country and outside.

Rangelands are limited in this belt and confined within the national park areas. Livestock fed on crop residues and grain by-products. Stall feeding and grazing on fallow land and roadsides are common. Most of the dung is used for compost making. In recent decades due to the shortage of fuel-wood, large portion of dung's are utilised for cooking. Forest provides fodder and grazing to livestock and fuel-wood in the foothills and encroached areas in Southern belt.

2.3 Middle: Hills
The Middle hills are low lying and tectonic valley, lie between Northern and Southern belt. It is a 40-60 km wide running along the length of the country parallel to the Himalayan range. It consist high ridges and steep valleys with numerous streams and rivers. The elevation ranges from 800 – 2,400 metre. The climate is subtropical with variable microenvironments. The farming has been done in the terrace hill slopes. Farms are small and subsistence types. Soil is of low to medium fertility level.

This belt is densely populated. Middle hills occupy 39 districts, and consists about 41 percent (6152,460 ha) of the total land area in which 32 percent is agricultural land, 45 percent is forests, 8.9 percent is under rangelands and rest others. Mid hills support 45 percent of the total population.

Livestock play a crucial role in this belt. The major ruminants are cattle, buffaloes, goats and sheep. The number of livestock per household is high i.e. 6.3. Much of the cultivated land in this belt is terraced form. The major cropping pattern is maize based followed by finger millet or mustard. In the low land especially in the river basins some rice cultivation is practised. Horticultural crops such as apple, pear citrus and vegetable production is becoming quite popular in recent years. Sub-tropical forage crops like oat, vetch, berseem, stylo, molasses and others are commonly grown in some dairy pocket areas in recent years.

2.4 Districts by Ecological belt of Nepal :
• Northern Himal (16 districts): Taplejung, Sankhuwasabha, Solukhumbu, Dolkha Sindhupalchauk, Rasuwa, Manang, Mustang, Dolpa Mugu, Humla, Jumla, Kalikot, Bajura, Bajhang, Darchula,
• Southern Terai (20 districts): Jhapa, Morang, Sunsari, Saptari, Siraha, Dhanusha, Mahottari, Sarlahi, Rautahat, Bara, Parsa, Chitwan, Nawalparasi, Rupandehi, Kapilbastu, Dang, Banke, Bardia, Kailali, Kanchanpur
• Middle hills (39 districts): Panchathar, Ilam, Terthum, Dhankuta, Bhojpur, Khotang, Okhaldhunga, Udayapur, Ramechhap, Sindhuli, Kavre, Bhaktapur, Lalitpur, Kathmandu, Nuwakot, Dhading, Makawanpur, Gorkha, Lamjung, Tanahu, Kaski, Parwat, Syanja, Palpa, Myagdi, Baglung, Gulmi, Arghakhanchi, Rukum, Rolpa, Pyuthan, Salyan, Jajarkot, Dailekh, Surkhet, Achham, Doti, Baitadi, Dadeldhura

3.0 Main crops
• Northern Himal: Barley, millet, buck-wheat, potato
• Southern Terai: Paddy, wheat, maize, sugarcane
• Middle Hills: Maize, millet, paddy

4.0 Livestock type:
• Northern Himal: Yak, chauri, sheep, goats, mules
• Southern Terai: Cattle, buffaloes, goat, sheep
• Middle Hills: Buffalo, cattle, goats, sheep

5.0 Land use pattern of Nepal
The total land of Nepal comprises about 14.7 million ha. Out of the total land area agricultural land occupy approximately 27 percent. All the agricultural land is not used under crop cultivation, it is estimated that about 20 percent of the total land is under cropping. Approx. 11.5 percent total land area is occupied by rangelands. Most of the rangelands are located in northern belt. About 38.1 percent of the land is under forests and about 4.7 under shrub and burn plantation. The land use pattern is rapidly changing; increasing pressure of human as well as livestock is the major factor for its manipulation.

5.1 Land Use pattern by ecological belts (ha):
• Agricultural land – 4010557 ha (northern 480172, southern- 1574548 and Hiils- 1955837);
• Rangeland -1701668 ha (northern 1082232, southern- 74101 and Hiils- 545335);
• Forest- 5605612 ha ( northern 1262299, southern- 1552256 and Hills- 2791057);
• Shrubs -689847 ha (northern 221914, southern- 45359 and Hills- 422574);
• Burn plantation- 10984 ha (northern -3577, southern- 5068 and Hills- 2339);
• Others- 2729837 ha (northern- 2135987, southern- 158531 and Hills- 43532).
• Total ha in northern HImal- 5186181ha (35.1%),
• Southern Terai- 3409863 ha (23.1%), and
• Middle Hills – 6152461 ha (41.7).

6. Climate:
Subtropical in the south to cool summers and severe winters in the northern mountains. The monsoon season is from June through September, during which showers occur almost every day, bringing 75 to 150 centimeters (30-60 in.) of rain.

7.0 Time zone:
The time zone is GMT+05:45. Nepal is 10 hours and 45 minutes ahead of Eastern Standard Time and does not observe daylight saving time.

Source: HMG/Nepal, Land Resource Mapping Project, 1986

Economical of Nepal
Nepal ranks among the world's poorest countries with a per capita income of around $300. Based on national calorie/GNP criteria, an estimated 31% of the population is below the poverty line. An isolated, agrarian society until the mid-20th century, Nepal entered the modern era in 1951 without schools, hospitals, roads, telecommunications, electric power, industry, or a civil service. The country has, however, made progress toward sustainable economic growth since the 1950s and is committed to a program of economic liberalization.
Nepal launched its tenth five-year economic development plan in 2002; its currency has been made convertible; and fourteen state enterprises have been privatized, seven liquidated and two dissolved. Foreign aid accounts for more than half of the development budget. The Government of Nepal has shown an increasing commitment to fiscal transparency, good governance, and accountability. Also in 2002, the government began to prioritize development projects and eliminate wasteful spending. In consultation with civil society and donors, the government cut 160 development projects that were driven by political patronage.
Agriculture remains Nepal's principal economic activity, employing over 76% of the population and providing 39% of GDP. Only about 25% of the total area is cultivable; another 33% is forested; most of the rest is mountainous. Rice and wheat are the main food crops. The lowland Terai region produces an agricultural surplus, part of which supplies the food-deficient hill areas. Because of Nepal’s dependence on agriculture, the annual monsoon rain, or lack of it, strongly influences economic growth.
Nepal’s exports increased 9.32% in FY 2004/05 compared to an increase of 7.78% in FY 2003/04. Imports grew by 7.08% in FY 2004/05 compared with 5.94% in FY 2003/04. The increase in exports is marginal due to the fact that there has been a significant drop in Nepal's main export, ready-made textile products. The trade deficit for FY 2003/04 was $1.0 billion, which widened to $1.18 billion in FY 2004/05. Real GDP growth during 1996-2002 averaged less than 5%. Real growth experienced a one-time jump in 1999, rising to 6%, before slipping back below 5%. In 2002, the GDP recorded a negative growth rate of 0.33%, largely because of the Maoist insurgency. GDP grew 3.1% in 2003 and 3.26% in 2004, and again slipped to 2.04% in 2005, according to Nepal Rastra Bank (Nepal's Central Bank).
Despite its growing trade deficit, Nepal traditionally has a balance of payments (BOP) surplus due to money sent home from Nepalis working abroad. In FY 2004/05, however, Nepal recorded a much lower balance of payments surplus of $80 million, as compared to $217.7 in FY 2003/04. The lower BOP surplus in FY 2004/05 is mainly attributable to the lower inflow of net government loans. The decline is primarily in the capital account, due primarily to a slow down in development activities funded by foreign grants and loans. Nepal receives substantial amounts of external assistance from India, the United Kingdom, the United States, Japan, Germany, and the Scandinavian countries. Several multilateral organizations--such as the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, and the UN Development Program--also provide assistance. Such assistance has decreased substantially in FY 2004/05 after the royal takeover of February 1, 2005 and also because the ongoing Maoist conflict has seriously undermined development activities throughout most of Nepal. On April 23, 2004 Nepal became the 147th member of the World Trade Organization (WTO).
With eight of the world's ten highest mountain peaks--including Mt. Everest at 8,848 m (29,000 ft)--Nepal is a tourist destination for hikers and mountain climbers. Yet a worsening internal security situation and a global economic slowdown threaten the tourism industry. Figures from the Nepal Tourism Board showed a 12.8% increase in arrivals in 2004, but these are well below numbers during 1999, the peak tourism year. Recent tourist arrivals, during the Maoist cease-fire, show a recovery from the massive decline experienced during the first five months of 2005; however, 2005 annual arrivals fell 3.9% short of total arrivals in 2004. The fragile security situation, particularly after the Maoists ended their unilateral cease-fire on January 2, 2006, is expected to alter the trend of growth in tourist arrivals witnessed during recent months.
Swift rivers flowing south through the Himalayas have massive hydroelectric potential to service domestic needs and growing demand from India. Only about 1% of Nepal's hydroelectric potential is currently tapped. Several hydroelectric projects, at Kulekhani and Marsyangdi, were completed in the early to late 1980s. In the early 1990s, one large public-sector project, the Kali Gandaki A (144 megawatts--MW), and a number of private projects were planned; some have been completed. Kali Gandaki A started commercial operation in August 2002. The most significant privately financed hydroelectric projects currently in operation are the Khimti Khola (60 MW) and Bhote Koshi (36 MW) projects.
The environmental impact of Nepal's hydroelectric projects has been limited by the fact that most are "run-of-river," with only one storage project undertaken to date. The private-sector West Seti (750 MW) storage project is dedicated to electricity exports. An Australian company, which signed a power purchase agreement with the Indian Power Trading Corporation in September 2002, is promoting the project for implementation along build-own-transfer lines. Negotiations with India for a power purchase agreement have been underway for several years, but agreement on pricing and capital financing remains a problem. The Government of Nepal has taken up the issue of project financing for the West Seti project with the EXIM Bank of China. Currently, domestic demand for electricity is increasing at 8%-10% a year.
Population pressure on natural resources is increasing. Overpopulation is already straining the "carrying capacity" of the middle hill areas, particularly the Kathmandu Valley, resulting in the depletion of forest cover for crops, fuel and fodder, and contributing to erosion and flooding. Additionally, water supplies within the Kathmandu Valley are not considered safe for consumption, and disease outbreaks are not uncommon. Although steep mountain terrain makes exploitation difficult, mineral surveys have found small deposits of limestone, magnesite, zinc, copper, iron, mica, lead, and cobalt.
Progress has been achieved in education, health, and infrastructure. A countrywide primary education system is under development, and Tribhuvan University has several campuses. Although eradication efforts continue, malaria has been controlled in the fertile but previously uninhabitable Terai region in the south. Kathmandu is linked to India and nearby hill regions by an expanding highway network.
Economical data
• GDP (2004/05): $7.37 billion.
• Annual growth rate of real GDP: 2.04% in FY 2004/05.
• Per capita income (Gross National Product): $300 in FY 2004/05.
• Avg. inflation rate (Consumer Price Index): 7.8% in Oct. 2005.
• Natural resources: Water, hydropower, scenic beauty, limited but fertile agricultural land, timber.
• Agriculture (39.2% of GDP): Products--rice, wheat, maize, sugarcane, oilseed, jute, millet, potatoes.
• Cultivated land--25%.
• Industry (11% of GDP): Types--carpets, pashmina, garments, cement, cigarettes, bricks, sugar, soap, matches, jute, hydroelectric power.
• Trade (2004/05): Exports--$821.84 million: carpets, pashmina, garments.
• Major markets--Germany and the U.S. Imports--$2.00 billion: manufactured goods.
• Major supplier--India.
• Central gov. budget (FY 2005/06): $1.79 billion; military allocation $153.73 million.
Official exchange rate (July 16, 2005): 70.9 Nepalese rupees=U.S. $1.00.
• Fiscal year: July 16-July 15.
• Work force: Agriculture--85%; industry--3%; services--11%; other--1%.

History and political events
Early History
Modern Nepal was created in the latter half of the 18th century when Prithvi Narayan Shah, the ruler of the small principality of Gorkha, formed a unified country from a number of independent hill states. The country was frequently called the Gorkha Kingdom, the source of the term "Gurkha" used for Nepali soldiers.
After 1800, the heirs of Prithvi Narayan Shah proved unable to maintain firm political control over Nepal. A period of internal turmoil followed, heightened by Nepal's defeat in a war with the British from 1814 to 1816. Stability was restored after 1846 when the Rana family gained power, entrenched itself through hereditary prime ministers, and reduced the monarch to a figurehead. The Rana regime, a tightly centralized autocracy, pursued a policy of isolating Nepal from external influences. This policy helped Nepal maintain its national independence during the colonial era, but also impeded the country's economic development.
In 1950, King Tribhuvan, a direct descendant of Prithvi Narayan Shah, fled his "palace prison" to newly independent India, touching off an armed revolt against the Rana administration. This allowed the return of the Shah family to power and, eventually, the appointment of a non-Rana prime minister. A period of quasi-constitutional rule followed, during which the monarch, assisted by the leaders of fledgling political parties, governed the country. During the 1950s, efforts were made to frame a constitution for Nepal that would establish a representative form of government, based on a British model.
Democracy Develops
In early 1959, King Mahendra issued a new constitution and the first democratic elections for a national assembly were held. The Nepali Congress Party, a moderate socialist group, gained a substantial victory in the election. Its leader, B.P. Koirala, formed a government and served as Prime Minister.
Declaring parliamentary democracy a failure eighteen months later, King Mahendra dismissed the Koirala government and promulgated a new constitution on December 16, 1962. The new constitution established a "partyless" system of panchayats (councils), which King Mahendra considered to be a democratic form of government closer to Nepalese traditions. As a hierarchical structure progressing from village assemblies to a Rastriya Panchayat (National Parliament), the panchayat system enshrined the absolute power of the monarchy and kept the King as head of state with sole authority over all governmental institutions, including the Cabinet (Council of Ministers) and the Parliament.
King Mahendra was succeeded by his 27 year-old son, King Birendra, in 1972. Amid student demonstrations and anti-regime activities in 1979, King Birendra called for a national referendum to decide the nature of Nepal's government--either the continuation of the panchayat system with democratic reforms or the establishment of a multiparty system. The referendum was held in May 1980, and the panchayat system won a narrow victory. The King carried out the promised reforms, including selection of the prime minister by the Rastriya Panchayat.
Movement To Restore Democracy
In 1990, the political parties again pressed the King and the government for change. Leftist parties united under a common banner of the United Left Front and joined forces with the Nepali Congress Party to launch strikes and demonstrations in the major cities of Nepal. This "Movement to Restore Democracy" was initially dealt with severely, with more than 50 persons killed by police gunfire and hundreds arrested. In April, the King capitulated. Consequently, he dissolved the panchayat system, lifted the ban on political parties, and released all political prisoners.
An interim government was sworn in on April 19, 1990, headed by Krishna Prasad Bhattarai as Prime Minister presiding over a cabinet made up of members of the Nepali Congress Party, the communist parties of Nepal, royal appointees, and independents. The new government drafted and promulgated a new constitution in November 1990, which enshrined fundamental human rights and established Nepal as a parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarch. International observers characterized the May 1991 elections as free and fair, in which the Nepali Congress Party won 110 seats out of 205 to form the government.
In mid-1994, the Parliament was dissolved due to dissension within the Nepali Congress Party. The subsequent general election, held November 15, 1994, gave no party a majority. The 1994 elections resulted in a Nepali Congress Party defeat and a hung Parliament, with a minority government led by the United Marxist and Leninist Party (UML); this made Nepal the world's first communist monarchy, with Man Mohan Adhikary as Prime Minister. The next five years saw five successive unstable coalition governments and the beginning of a Maoist insurgency.
Following the May 1999 general elections, the Nepali Congress Party once again headed a majority government after winning 113 out of 205 seats. But the pattern of short-lived governments persisted. There were three Nepali Congress Party Prime Ministers after the 1999 elections: K.P. Bhattarai (5/31/99-3/17/00); G.P. Koirala (3/20/00-7/19/01); and Sher Bahadur Deuba (7/23/01-10/04/02).
On June 1, 2001, Crown Prince Dipendra reportedly shot and killed his father, King Birendra; his mother, Queen Aishwarya; his brother; his sister; his father's younger brother, Prince Dhirendra; and several aunts; before turning the gun on himself. After his death two days later, the late King's surviving brother Gyanendra was proclaimed King.
In February 1996, the leaders of the Maoist United People's Front began a violent insurgency, waged through killings, torture, bombings, kidnappings, extortion, and intimidation against civilians, police, and public officials in more than 50 of the country's 75 districts. Over 12,000 police, civilians, and insurgents have been killed in the conflict since 1996. The government and Maoists held peace talks in August, September, and November of 2001, but they were unsuccessful, and the Maoists resumed their violent insurgency. Shortly after the 2001 peace talks failed, King Gyanendra declared a state of emergency and the Parliament approved this declaration by a two-thirds vote. On the recommendation of Prime Minister Sher Bahadur Deuba, the King dissolved the House on May 22, 2002.
Struggle for Democracy Continues
In a sudden turn of events on October 4, 2002, King Gyanendra removed Prime Minister Deuba and assumed executive power. The entire Council of Ministers was also dissolved, and the November 13, 2002 elections to the dissolved House of Representatives were called off. After a week-long consultation with the leaders of various political parties, on October 11, 2002, the King appointed Lokendra Bahadur Chand as Prime Minister with a five-point directive that included creating an environment of peace and security as well as holding elections to the local bodies and the House of Representatives.
In a major development after Chand assumed the premiership, the government and Maoists declared a cease-fire on January 29, 2003. This marked the second cease-fire with the Maoists; the first, in 2001, had been broken by the Maoists. The 2003 cease-fire included an agreement to undertake initiatives to resolve the Maoist problem through dialogue and bring the Communist Party of Nepal/Maoist back into mainstream politics. After the announcement of the 2003 cease-fire, the Chand government held two rounds of peace talks with the Maoists, in April and May. But in its effort to end political instability, it failed to secure the support of the leading political parties. In the face of growing pressure from political parties and their mass movement, Chand resigned from his post on May 30, 2003, after only seven months in power.
The King appointed Surya Bahadur Thapa as the new Prime Minister on June 4, 2003, amidst opposition from the major political parties. Another round of peace talks was held in mid-August 2003, but on August 27, 2003 the Maoists broke the second cease-fire. Thapa resigned in May 2004 as a result of political pressures. In June 2004, the King reinstated formerly dismissed Sher Bahadur Deuba as Prime Minister.
Citing a steady deterioration of conditions in the country, King Gyanendra dismissed the Cabinet and constituted a Council of Ministers under his own chairmanship on February 1, 2005. He stated that the Council of Ministers (i.e., Cabinet) would try to reactivate multi-party democracy within three years. The King subsequently declared a state of emergency and suspended almost all fundamental rights for almost three months. His new government was sworn in on February 2, 2005. The Council of Ministers under the King’s chairmanship has been reshuffled twice since then.
In April 2006, a second major people’s movement for the restoration of democracy pressured the King to relinquish power, and on April 24, 2006, King Gyanendra reinstated the 1999 parliament that was dismissed in May 2002. Former Prime Minister Girija Prasad Koirala of the Nepali Congress Party was selected by the opposition seven-party alliance to again lead the government. The Maoists declared a ceasefire on April 26, and the new Koirala government announced its own ceasefire and plans for peace talks with the Maoist insurgents on May 3, 2006.
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS
According to the constitution, Nepal is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary form of government that is multiethnic, multilingual, Hindu, and retains the king in the role of head of state. The former "partyless" panchayat system of government was abolished in April 1990 (see "Movement to Restore Democracy."). Under the constitution, the democratically elected Parliament consists of the House of Representatives (lower house) and the National Assembly (upper house). International observers considered the 1999 parliamentary elections to be generally free and fair. There have not been any parliamentary elections since 1999. King Gyanendra assumed the throne in June 2001, after the late Crown Prince Dipendra killed King Birendra and nine members of the royal family, including himself.
A Maoist insurgency--punctuated by a cease-fire in 2001, one in 2003, another from September 3, 2005 to January 2, 2006, and the latest one from April 26, 2006--has been ongoing since 1996. A nationwide state of emergency was in effect from November 2001 to August 2002 after Maoist insurgents broke a four-month cease-fire with violent attacks. During that time, King Gyanendra, under the constitution's emergency provisions and on the advice of the Cabinet, suspended several constitutional rights, including freedom of expression, assembly, privacy, and property. In October 2002, the King dismissed Prime Minister Sher Bahadur Deuba after he recommended the dissolution of Parliament but was subsequently unable to hold elections because of the ongoing insurgency. A Cabinet was royally appointed to govern the country until elections could be held at an unspecified future time.
On June 4, 2003 King Gyanendra appointed Surya Bahadur Thapa as Prime Minister after Lokendra Bahadur Chand resigned on May 30, 2003. The government and the Maoists declared another cease-fire on January 29, 2003 and held three rounds of talks on April 27, May 9, and August 17 to 19, 2003. The Maoists unilaterally broke the cease-fire on August 27, 2003 and resumed attacks against government, security, and civilian targets.
Prime Minister Thapa resigned in May 2004, and on June 2, 2004, King Gyanendra reinstated formerly dismissed Sher Bahadur Deuba as Prime Minister. In February 2005, the King dismissed Prime Minister Deuba and dissolved the Cabinet. The Maoists announced a three-month unilateral cease-fire on September 3, 2005, which was extended for another month on December 2, 2005. The Maoists ended this third cease-fire, returning to violence on January 2, 2006. After the King announced the reinstatement of parliament on April 24, the Maoists declared a three-month unilateral ceasefire on April 26, which the new Koirala government reciprocated on May 3.
Under the constitution, Nepal's judiciary is legally separate from the executive and legislative branches, and in practice has increasingly shown the will to be independent of political influence. The judiciary has the right of judicial review under the constitution. The King appoints the Chief Justice and all other judges to the Supreme, Appellate, and District Courts upon the recommendation of the Judicial Council. All lower court decisions, including acquittals, are subject to appeal. The Supreme Court is the court of last appeal. The King may grant pardons and may suspend, commute, or remit any sentence pronounced by any court.
Human Rights
Since political reform began in 1990, some progress has been achieved in the transition to a more open society with greater respect for human rights; however, substantial problems remain. Poorly trained police sometimes use excessive force in quelling violent demonstrations. In addition, there have been reports of torture during detention and widespread reports of custodial abuse. In 2000, the government established the National Human Rights Commission, a government-appointed commission with a mandate to investigate human rights violations. The government is sometimes slow to follow the commission's recommendations or to enforce accountability for recent and past abuses. The King’s February 2005 dismissal of the government, subsequent imposition of emergency rule and suspension of many civil rights for almost three months--including freedom of expression, assembly, and privacy--was a setback for human rights in Nepal. Censors were reportedly deployed to major newspapers, and many political leaders were kept under house arrest.
Both the Maoists and security personnel have committed numerous human rights violations. The Maoists have used tactics such as kidnapping, torture, bombings, intimidation, killings, and conscription of children. Within the Nepalese security force, violations ranging from disappearances to executions have been recorded. After the royal takeover on February 1, 2005 and subsequent imposition of the state of emergency, the security forces arrested many political leaders, student leaders, journalists, and human rights activists under the Public Security Act of 1989, although all were released by June 2005 when the King ended the state of emergency.
There are three major daily English-language newspapers, "The Kathmandu Post," "The Himalayan Times" and "The Rising Nepal," of which the latter and its vernacular sister publication are owned by a government corporation. There are literally hundreds of smaller daily and weekly periodicals that are privately owned and of diverse journalistic quality. Views expressed since the 1990 move to democracy are varied and vigorous. Currently twenty-five radio and three television stations are privately owned and operated, due to liberalization of licensing regulations. Radio Nepal and Nepal Television are government-owned and operated. There are nearly 200 cable television operators nationwide, and satellite dishes to receive television broadcasts abound.
There are some restrictions on freedom of expression. The law strictly forbidding the media to criticize or satirize the King or any member of the royal family is currently being enforced after the King’s February 2005 dissolution of the Cabinet. After the royal takeover on February 1, 2005, the Ministry of Information and Communications issued a notice invoking the National Broadcasting Act of 1992, stating that no media can publish interviews, articles, or news items against the spirit of the royal proclamation of February 1. A second notice invoking the Press and Publications Act of 1991 was issued on February 3 stating that no media can publish news items supporting terrorist and destructive activities.
On October 9, 2005, the government promulgated a new Media Ordinance restricting news reporting by private FM radio stations, prohibiting criticism of the King and royal family, restricting dissemination of news from foreign sources, enabling a government-controlled press council to recommend revoking a journalist's press credential; and placing new restrictions on cross-media ownership. In the months following the issuance of the ordinance, armed authorities raided private FM radio stations and seized station equipment, although the government has since obeyed a Supreme Court order to return the equipment and allow FM stations to broadcast news. The newly reinstated government led by Prime Minister Koirala announced in May 2006 that all media ordinances passed by the former King-led government would be overturned, and the Supreme Court on May 5, 2006, upheld FM stations' right to air news.
Trafficking in women and child labor remain serious problems. Discrimination against women and lower castes is prevalent.
Government

• Type: Constitutional monarchy.
• Constitution: November 9, 1990.
• Branches: Executive--prime minister (head of government), king (head of state).
• Legislative--Parliament consisting of House of Representatives (205-member lower house) and National Assembly (60-member upper house). Judicial--Supreme Court, 16 appellate courts, 75 district courts.
• Subdivisions: 5 development regions, 14 zones, and 75 districts. 75 district development committees, 58 municipalities, 3,913 village development committees, and 36,023 ward committees.
• Political parties (lower house representation): Nepali Congress Party, Nepali Congress-Democratic Pary, Communist Party of Nepal/United Marxist-Leninist, National Democratic Party (RPP), Nepal Goodwill Party (NSP), National People's Front, and others.
• Elections: No national elections since 1999.
• Suffrage: Universal over 18.
• Defense/police (2005): $265 million.
• National Day: Democracy Day, Falgun 7 (mid-February).
DEFENSE
Nepal's military consists of the nearly 90,000-strong Royal Nepalese Army (RNA), which is organized into six divisions (Far Western, Mid Western, Western, Central, Eastern and the Valley Division) with separate Aviation, Parachute and Royal Palace Brigades as well as brigade-sized directorates encompassing air defense, artillery, engineers, logistics and signals which provide general support to the RNA. The King is the Supreme Commander of the RNA while the Prime Minister normally serves as Minister of Defense. General Pyar Jung Thapa is Chief of the Army Staff (COAS).
The RNA has contributed more than 45,000 peacekeepers to twenty-eight peacekeeping missions such as the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL), the UN Protection Force (UNPROFOR) in the Former Yugoslavia, the UN Operational Mission in Somalia II (UNOSOMII), the UN Mission in Haiti (UNMIH), and the UN Mission of Support in East Timor (UNTAET). While concurrently fighting a Maoist insurgency within Nepal, RNA units are also presently serving in the UN Mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL), the UN Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC), and the UN Mission in Haiti (MINUSTOH), among others. Approximately 3,400 of the world-famous Nepalese Gurkha forces serve in the British Army and 40,000 serve in the Indian Army.
The U.S. Pacific Command (USPACOM) coordinates U.S. military engagement and security assistance with Nepal through the Office of Defense Cooperation. U.S. military assistance to the RNA has consisted of $21.95 million in grant Foreign Military Financing (FMF) since 2002, annual professional and technical training provided under the International Military Education and Training Program (IMET) grant ($650,000 in FY05), additional training provided under the Counter Terrorism (CT) Fellowship ($200,000 for FY04), and approximately $2 million of Enhanced International Peacekeeping Capabilities (EIPC) funding to increase the pool of international peacekeepers and promote interoperability. Many RNA officers attend U.S. military schools, including the U.S. Army War College, the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College (CGSC), and various conferences and seminars such as those provided by the National Defense University (NDU) and the Asia Pacific Center for Strategic Studies (APCSS).
FOREIGN RELATIONS
As a small, landlocked country wedged between two much larger and far stronger powers, Nepal seeks good relations with both India and China. Nepal formally established relations with China in 1956, and since then their bilateral relations have generally been very good. Because of strong cultural, religious, linguistic, and economic ties, Nepal's association with India traditionally has been close. India and Nepal restored trade relations in 1990 after a break caused by India's security concerns over Nepal's relations with China. A bilateral trade treaty signed in 1991 is renewed every five years. The most recent renewal on March 5, 2002 shall remain in force until March 5, 2007. However, a transit treaty with India, which allows Nepal to trade with other countries through the Calcutta/Haldia ports, expired on January 5, 2006. To allow time for the review of the seven-year-old transit treaty, India extended the treaty for a period of three months, until April 5, 2006.
Nepal has played an active role in the formation of the economic development-oriented South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and is the site of its secretariat. Nepal is also a signatory of the agreement on South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA), which came into force on January 1, 2006, and the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation Free Trade Agreement (BIMSTEC-FTA), which will come into force on July 1, 2006. On international issues, Nepal follows a non-aligned policy and often votes with the Non-Aligned Movement in the United Nations. Nepal participates in a number of UN specialized agencies and is a member of the World Trade Organization, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Colombo Plan, and Asian Development Bank.

Forest Resources in Nepal

2007-03-25T01:39:00.000-07:00

Forests Resources in Feed Supply-Nepal

By: Rameshwar Singh Pande

1.1 Importance of Forest Resources
Forest is one of the most important national resources, useful to human, livestock, wildlife and for the conservation of environment. Livestock heavily depends on forests resources for grazing, lopped fodder and bedding materials. Despite the fodder, forest is the major sources of domestic energy in the form of fuel-wood, timber/poles for household and industrial uses. Various secondary products are derived from forest resources mainly raw materials for paper industries, medicinal herbs, fruits, forest flora & fauna and others. Forest is the major niche for wild life and biological diversity.

1.2 Areas and Distribution of Forests in Nepal
The total land area covered by forests is 63,06,443 ha in which contribution of forest, shrubs and burn plantations are 56,05,612.2 ha; 6,89,847 ha and 10,983.8 ha respectively (MPFS, 1988). Out of the total forest resources 25 percent is found in Southern belt, 51 percent in Middle hills and 24 percent in Northern belt.

Forests are being over exploited and mismanaged. Deforestation, due to lopping, tree falling, forest grazing reached at alarming stage. It is estimated that 25,000 ha of forests (i.e. @ 0.4 percent) are being degraded every year. This is not only creating an energy crisis but many other serious problems relating environmental degradation. It is reported that if the present trend of forest destruction will be continued, the forest of the Southern Belt will be disappeared in nest 25 years and in Middle hills in nest 15 years (Joshi, 1991).

Area under forests:
Total forests area 6306443 ha (Northern/Himal- 1487790, Southern- Terai-1602683 and Middle Hills – 3215696) Source: Area (LRMP, 1986).
• Forest area : 5605,612.2 ha (Northern/Himal- 1262299, Southern- Terai-1552265 and Middle Hills – 2791057),
• Shrubs area : 689847 ha (Northern/Himal- 221914, Southern- Terai- 45359 and Middle Hills – 422573),
• Burn Plantation area : 10983 ha (Northern/Himal- 3577, Southern- Terai-5068 and Middle Hills – 2338),

1.3 Fodder Production from Forest
Forests are the main source of fodder for livestock. Despite the leaves and twigs, the undergrowth vegetation is also collected and/or grazed by livestock. It is estimated that over 73 percent of forests are used by the farmers and domestic animals (MPFS, 1988). The same study revealed that total fodder production from forest is 6583 Mt TDN per annum (MPFS, 1988). Pandey (1982) estimates that contribution of forest in annual feed supply is about 35 percent. In the present study, the forest contributes in feed supply by 11.4 percent Total production of fodder from forest, shrub lands and burn plantation is 34,92,053.7 Mt DM. In which contribution of forests is 69.4 percent, shrubs 30.4 percent and burn plantation is 0.15 percent respectively. Out of the total forest fodder 47.5 percent is produced in Southern belt, 46.1 percent in Middle hills and rest 10.4 percent in Northern belt.

Fodder productions (Dry Matter) from forests sources:
• Fodder from Forest area : 2424417 MTDM, (Northern/Himal- 252459, Southern- Terai- 1055534 and Middle Hills – 1116422) based Kg DM/ha yield 200, 680 and 400 kg DM/ha respectively from Himal, Tera and Mid hills),
• Fodder from shrub area : 1062364 MTDM, (Northern/Himal- 341748, Southern- Terai- 69853 and Middle Hills – 650763) based KgDM/ha yield 1540, 1540 and 1540 kg DM/ha respectively from Himal, Tera and Mid hills),
• Fodder from burn plantation area: 5272 MTDM, (Northern/Himal- 1717, Southern- Terai- 2432 and Middle Hills – 1122) based KgDM/ha yield 480, 480 and 480 kg DM/ha respectively from Himal, Tera and Mid hills), Source: Area: LRMP, 1986; Fodder yield: MPFS, 1988

DM production from forest varies from eco-zone to eco-zone and also the utilization percent varies from one region to another. Per capita forest and shrub lands are about 0.37 ha in which about 0.27 ha per capita is accessible. In Southern and Middle belt, over 90 percent of the forest resources are accessible. Human pressure on forest resources is less on Northern high Himal region due to sparse human population (MPFS, 1988). Overall 78.9 percent of the forest resources are accessible.

1.4 Types of Forest Vegetation:
Forest vegetation can be divided into following groups based on altitude and climate:
• Tropical forests
• Sub-tropical Forest
• Temperate Forest
• Sub-alpine forest vegetation
• Alpine Forest, and
• Steppe Forest

1.4.1 Tropical Forests
Tropical forests are found in southern border running along the Indian boarder in Southern belt below 1000 m. In this region the dominated forest species is sal (Shorea robusta) associated with Adina cordifolia, Dillenia pentagyna, Termenalia spp, Albizia spp, Salmalia malabarica, Cedrela toona, Semicarpus anacardium, Mallotus philippinense. In riverside the major tree species are Acacia catechu, Dalbergia sissoo, Dalbergia latifolia are found. Patches of Cidrela toona, Langerstroemia parviflora, Betea frondosa, Adina cordifolia, Trema orientalis are found associated with shrubs/herbs such as Crotaliria alata, Desmodium spp, Cassia tora, Zizzyphus juguba, Discorea spp. Among these tree species sal, babul, albizia, zizyphus are heavily browsed by animals and also are lopped for fodder collection.

Forestry Master Plan estimates that most of the forests of Southern belt are accessible and used for grazing and fodder collection. The productivity of these forests is 0.68 Mt DM/ha.

1.4.2 Sub-tropical Forests
Sub-tropical forests are found in between 1000-2000 m. The forests are characterized by Schima-Castanopsis spp. The major species are Schima wallichii, which are, occurs in the wet areas. In dry area the dominant species is pine (Pinus roxburghii). Most of the tree species found in tropical zone also occurs in this zone in a localized area. In the southern aspects of upper elevation of these zone patches of oak forest (Quercus incana) and Quercus lanata with Rhododendron arboreum, Lyonia ovalifolia are found. Oak plants are heavily lopped for fodder during lean period (November - May). Fodder production from pine forest is very low. However, in new plantation sites of pine plantation grass-legume mixture of stylo and molasses are found very successful up to 10-12 years in Palpa.

Forestry Master Plan estimates that most of the forests of Middle hills are accessible and used for grazing and fodder collection. The productivity of these forests is 0.4 Mt DM/ha.

1.4.3 Temperate Forests
This zone falls in between 2,000-3,000 m. At the lower belt around 2000 m mixed-broad leafed type plant community like laurels, Rhododendron arboreum, Acer oblongum, Myrica esculenta, Michelia kisopa are found. At upper belt evergreen Oak Forest dominated with Quercus lanellosa, Quercus glauca, and Quercus semicarpifolia are found. In some patches of dry area Tsuga dumosa, Pinus wallichiana are occurs. In eroded and wet patches forest of Alnus nepalensis are found.

Oak plants are heavily lopped for fodder during lean period (November - May). The Alnus spp are also heavily lopped for bedding materials.

Forestry Master Plan estimates that most of the forests of Northern belts are accessible and used for grazing and fodder collection. The productivity of these forests is 0.2 Mt DM/ha.

1.4.4 Sub-alpine Forest Vegetation
These types of vegetation are found in between 3,000-3,700 m. Major plant species are Pinus excelsa, Tsuga dumosa, Abies spectabilis, Beluta utilis Juniperus recurva, Juniperus indica and Rhododendron componulatum. Under this major tree species bush like shrubby species form a mat. The productivity of these forests is 0.2 Mt DM/ha.

1.4.5 Alpine Forests
These types of vegetation are found in between 3,500 m up to snow line. The plant grows as a bush like shrubs. Major plant species are Rhododendron setosum, Rhodendron lapidotum, Potentilla fruticosa, Polygonum vaccinifolium, Hippophe rhamnoides and Ephedra gerardiana. The productivity of these forests is 0.2 Mt DM/ha.

1.4.6 Steppe Forests
The Trans-Himalayan region of Dolpa, Mustang, Manang, north to Dhaulagiri and Annapurna has steppe vegetation. The plant species comprises Caragana brurifolia, Caragana gerardiana, Lonicera spinosa, Lonicera myrteloides, Myricaria spp, astragalus spp, Juniperus, Berbaris and Sophora moorcrofliana. The productivity of these forests is very low about 0.2 Mt DM/ha.

1.5 Other Forest Products
Forests provide fuel-wood, fodder, timber and many secondary products such as herbs and fruits. Brief descriptions of the forest products are mentioned bellows:

1.5 Fuel-wood
Fuel-wood is the main product of the forest. In Nepal, 80 percent of the total household use firewood for cooking and heating. Fuel-wood comprises 68 (Water & Energy Commission, 1991) to 87 percent of the country's total energy needs (Gilmour, 1984). Out of the total energy consumed about 95 per cent i.e. 5652.3 thousand Ton Coal equivalent (TOE) is used for domestic purpose. Similarly, about 98 per cent of fuel-wood is used in domestic sector. It is estimated that forest resources provide 9200 Mt of fuel-wood annually and demand is 11306 Mt (MPFS, 1988). Other researcher estimated that the annual consumption of fuel-wood in the country vary from 640 kg to 800 kg per person (New Era, 1980; Shrestha, 1982; Compbell, 1983). Such a heavy use of fuel-wood not only denudes the forestland but also affects the soil erosion and livestock fodder supply.

1.5.1 Litter
Litter (fallen leaves and twigs etc) are the important source collected from forests. Litters are used as bedding materials for animals and for making compost. Litter is the only kind of fertilizer available for crop production in the remote areas of Nepal. It is estimated that as much as 50 per cent of the litter produced is removed annually from the accessible forests (Livestock Sector Master Plan, 1993).

Litters generally covers most forest floors and litter collection can seriously alter the forest floor hydrology and the soil surface open to high rates of surface soil erosion.

1.5.2 Timber
Timber is the main cash product of the forests. Few years ago timber was the main export item of Nepal. There was a popular slogan that "Nepal ko Dhan Hariyo Ban" i.e. Green Forests are the Wealth of Nepal. But the forests are disappearing and it is estimated that the requirement of the timber is far short than the supply. On the basis of the present trend of demand and supply of timber, there is a deficit of 248.3 thousand cubic Metres annually.

1.5.3 Others
Forest provides many non-wood products such as herbs, medicinal plants, fruits and others. Large quantities of herbs are exported to the neighbouring country every year. Similarly, large proportion of raw material needed for paper industries is collected from forests.

1.6 Forest Grazing Practices
Few years ago forest was considered as an every bodies grazing ground. In the traditional system, livestock are allowed to graze all over the forest area during the daytime. The livestock are attended by the herdsman mainly to watch for its security. The tree fodder also been lopped to feed the browsers especially goats and cattle.

Recently, due to the awareness towards forest conservation and evolution of community forestry consciousness towards protection has been increasing. Wide varieties of tree fodder are either browsed in situ or lopped by the herders to use under stall fed conditions. Major forest species for fodder use as listed by (Upadhyay, 1991) are: Masure catus (Castanopsis tribuloides), sal (Shorea robusta), saaj (Terminalia alata), chilaune (Schima wallichii), kangio (Wendlandia chebula) and others.

1.7 Deforestation and Environment Degradation
Environmental degradation directly influenced by deforestation and loss in forest vegetation. Over cutting of wood for fuel, heavy lopping for fodder and over grazing is the main cause of deforestation.

It is general tendency is to clear forest and acclaim for agriculture has been increasing in Nepal. Excessive of cutting, grazing and lopping of the forest vegetation have marked effect on the environmental degradation such as loss in productivity, land slides, soil erosion, river reservoir sedimentation, river siltation, downstream flooding etc.

The livestock population is also exerting intense pressure on the forest vegetation and wildlife. Excessive grazing has given rise to negative impact on forestry resource management. It has destroyed regeneration and prevented establishment of planted seedlings. Lopping of trees for leaf fodder is increasing. The present Livestock population is too high to sustain the carrying capacity of the forest.

The tremendous pressure on forestland to meet the need for fodder and fuel-wood if not controlled could deteriorate the situation further. The present extraction rate for fodder and fuel-wood exceeds sustainable yield of accessible forests. Neild (1985) reported that the rate of forest degradation is three times faster than they are being planted. It is estimated that the unmanaged forest area required per unit of agriculture land for the supply of fuel-wood, fodder and timber in the ratio 1:0.36; 1:0.32; and 1:28 respectively for the sustainable use (Wyatt-Smith, 1982).

Regarding the fuel-wood crisis Joshi (1991) cited the popular quotation in the research studies as "In the Himalayan foothills of Nepal, a journey to gather firewood and fodder took an hour or two few decades ago. Today it is observed to take a whole day".

Controlling the loss of forest cover, tree falling, could solve environmental degradation and reforestation of degraded. Women could play key role in such afford.

1.8 Forestry Development Activities
Forestry development activities were started in true sense, after the Nationalization Act 1956. After the initiation of the act ownership of the forest is took over by government. Prior to this a feudal system of land ownership was prevailed and large areas of forests were under the control of elite groups. A scientific approach on forestry development was started in 1960, under the Jiri- Multipurpose Development Project (JMDP). In 1973 concept of community forestry was emerged and the Community Forestry legislation was passed in 1977. Similarly, the Nepal- Australia Forestry Project started in 1978. World Bank assisted community Forestry Development and Terai Project has been operating since 1981.

Community Forestry legislation was passed in 1976, fuel-wood supply, provision of underneath grasses, lopped branches, leaves from fodder tree for feeding livestock are expected to be the main purpose of the community managed forestry. It is estimated that 400,000 ha of forest will be transferred to user group holding traditional access rights to these areas.

The major institution for the forestry development is the Ministry of Forestry and Environment. There are various National/International agencies involved in forestry sector in Nepal such as World Bank, Asian Development Bank, USAID, ADAB, CIDA, EEC, GTZ, SIDA, FINNIDA, DAMDA, JICA, ODA, and SATA. The UN organization such as UNDP, FAO, UNIDO and UNICEF are providing mostly technical assistance and some financial support to some forestry projects. Various voluntary organization are also involve in the forestry sector such as Japan Overseas Volunteers Cooperation, Peace Corps, SNV (Netherlands), Volunteers Services Overseas etc.

The major forestry projects operating through Department of Forests are:
Hill Community Forestry Development Project,
Nepal-Australia Forestry Project
Terai Community Forestry Project and many watershed Management projects and Integrated Rural Development Project are continued.

Up to 1988, over 126,008 ha area has been planted with various tree species.

1.9 Major Limitations
• Common property: Forest resources are a national property, individual responsibility towards its protection is lacking.
• Occupation of forest: Forest clearing for agriculture, fruit orchards and afforestation is increasing
• Uncontrolled grazing: Forest is considered as a God gifted for livestock grazing. Almost all the accessible forest is grazed throughout the year.
• Soil erosion: Laban (1978) estimated that annual soil loss from mid hill forest is about 10-200 Mt /ha/annum from the degraded forest whereas from the managed forest the soil loss is only 5-10 Mt/ha/annum.

1.10 Recommendations
• Promotion of community managed forestry: The community forestry development practices should be promoted for the protection and conservation of forest resources as well as to meet the requirements of fodder, fuel-wood and timber in a sustainable basis.
• Impose forest grazing rules and regulations: A national level policies should be developed for the sustainable use of forest resources whereas at local level utilization and management practices should be developed for the use of forests.
• Use of degraded forestland for agroforestry: The degraded forestlands should be developed under silviculture system on leased basis.

Fodder Trees of Nepal

2007-03-25T01:28:00.000-07:00

Fodder Trees of Nepal
By- Rameshwar Singh Pande, 2007

1. Importance of Fodder Tree Species in NepalFodder shrubs/trees as animal feed, particularly during winter and dry period have been the important traditional source of livestock feed especially, in the Middle and Northern Belt of Nepal. Plantation of fodder trees and shrubs are an ecological sound practices, which contributes on soil conservation and maintaining agricultural sustainability.

Fodder trees and shrubs play an important role in Nepalese economy. More than 136 different species of trees/shrubs have been used as a source of livestock feed in Nepal. Trees/shrubs are the main source of fodder and bedding material for livestock, fuel-wood for energy needs and, timber for house construction. Traditionally, foliage of fodder tree and shrub has been offered to cattle, buffalo, and goats especially in stall-fed conditions. For example, in high Northern Belt, when, the pasturelands are covered with snow for most of the winter season (5-6 months of a year) and there is a conserved forage deficit, the foliage of trees/shrubs help the requirements of feed for livestock.

It is estimated that fodder (either planted or naturally grown) trees/shrubs provide approximately 41 percent of DM in annual feed supply (Pandey, 1982). Pandey (1990a) estimates that about 12 percent of foliage of trees/shrubs has been supplemented with other roughage to dairy cattle in Nepal. A household survey carried out in a Chautara, Nepal showed that the use of fodder was 655 kg per caput, and use of litter for bedding material was 459 kg per caput (New Era, 1980). Despite to provide fodder and bedding material to livestock trees and shrubs also provide fuel-wood, poles and timber for house construction. Fuel-wood is the major source of the energy needs. It was estimated that fuel-wood provides more than 87percent of the country's energy need (Manandhar, 1980; Danovan, 1981). Campbell (1983) found that average annual consumption of fuel-wood in middle hill areas of Nepal was 640 kg per caput.

Trees/shrubs not only provide fodder and fuel-wood at the same time also serve as an excellent source for soil improvement and conservation (Brewbaker, 1983). Leguminous fodder species able to fix 500 kg N/ha/yr. (Withinglin, 1987). Plantation of trees/shrubs along the counters is widely recommended to reduce the run off of water and protect terrace (Lundgren and Nair, 1983; Gilmour, 1984; Weirsum, 1984; Benge, 1987). By planting trees/shrubs, soil erosion can be reduced to about one ton of soil per hectare as compared with annual loss of about 120 Mt under a typical crop production system (Maharajan, 1987).

Most of the leaves of trees/shrubs are of low palatability and low digestibility (Wilson, 1977; Pande, 1990). Many browse species, which have been used in Nepal found to contain high concentration of hydrocyanic acid (HCN) (Pandey, 1982); tannins (Shrestha and Pakhrin, 1989), which is related to decrease in milk yield and can cause gastro-urinal problems in ruminant (Pandey, 1982; Shrestha and Pakhrin, 1989). Animal production is also low when foliage of tree/shrubs were fed as a sole diet to animals (Pande, 1990) but fodder can still be the sole source of feed for animal when herbaceous forage is scare.

1.2 Feed value of fodder Materials

Fodder serve as a supplementary diet as well as sole diet for ruminant. fodder trees constitutes a valuable source of feed for livestock especially during lean period. Pandey (1990b) reviewed the nutritive value of fodder species and analysis of 19 different fodder tree species which are commonly used in Nepal showed that on an average CP content is generally high i.e. 18.7 percent CP on percent DM (Panday, 1990b). Similarly, Pandey (1982) listed the chemical composition of 49 different species of fodder species which contain 13.6 percent CP (range 5.2 - 29.7 percent DM). Mahto et al (1989) reported that protein content in 6 Ficus species were ranged 8.5 to 13.5 percent which was higher than the protein requirement of lactating ruminant. However, the dry matter digestibility (DMD) was low ranged from 24.4 to 54.1 percent DM.

Most of the fodder species contain adequate amount of trace elements such as Mn, Zn, Fe, Ca and K. However, many browse species are low in Na, P and Cu (Jones, 1979; NAS, 1975; Bohra and Ghose, 1980; Pandey, 1982; Ranawana, 1987; Gupta and Balaraman, 1989).

Leguminous fodder tree species are relatively higher in nutritive value compared to non-leguminous species. For example, Nitrogen (N) content in tagasaste (Chamaecytisus palmensis) was found 3.2 percent DM and in vitro dry matter digestibility (DMD) was 69.3 (Pande, 1990). Similarly, widely used fodder tree species Leucaena contain 2.9percent and in -vitro DMD was 62.2 (Cheva-isarakull & Polikanond, 1985). However, fodder species are generally higher in fibber content compared to grasses in flush season.

Fodder trees/shrub may not be an efficient sole diet for livestock but as a supplement with poor quality roughage such as straw and poor quality grasses, browse may serve as an excellent feed especially in dry season. Van Eys et al (1986) reported that there were increased growth rate in growing goats when napier grass supplemented with tree legumes like gliricidia, leucaena and sesbania compared to napier grass alone in Indonesia. Reynolds and Adediran (1988) reported that lamb growth rate increased when Panicum maximum and cassava peel were supplemented with Leucaena leucocephala and Gliricidia sepium leaves were fed as a basal diet (in 1:w/w) compared to control diet of Panicum maximum and cassava peel alone.

Published data on the grazing behaviour and preference for browsing behaviour show that goats utilise browse more than any other ruminant. Devendra (1987) categorised goat as browsers and sheep and cattle as grazers. Van Dyne et al (1980) reviewed the wide range of literature and concluded that the overall contribution of browse in greater in goat diet than in sheep and cattle (Table -2). However, Sharma (1985) reported that cattle and buffaloes are the most utilise of fodder trees compared to goat in mid-hills of Nepal but he did not mentioned whether the browse were offered in stall- fed or in free ranging conditions.

1.3 Estimated Production of Fodder

Fodder trees/shrubs are popularly grown in the Middle and Northern Belt. The productivity of the fodder trees/shrubs depends on species, age, height of the plant and the lopping cycle. The productivity of the fodder trees/shrubs vary from 15- 60 kg/tree/annum (Pandey, 1982).

1.4 Fodder tree Species Developmental Activities

Production and distribution of fodder trees/shrubs saplings are the major activities of various GO/NGOs. For example, district level offices of Department of Livestock Services, Department of Forest, Department of Soil water Conservation are producing a large number of fodder trees/shrubs sapling and distributes to the farmers at nominal price. Annual distribution of the saplings varies from 1-3 million/year. However, information on the survival percentage and contribution on fodder supply is extremely lacking.

1.5 Major Fodder tree Species

There are over 136 species of trees/shrubs, which are used as livestock fodder in Nepal (Pande, 1991; Pandey, 1982). Most of these species are non- - legume. A review of the available fodder tree species revealed that only few are legumes.

1.5.1 Native fodder tree Species
 Badahar (Artocarpus lakoocha)

It is a most popular fodder tree in Northern and Middle Belt of Nepal. It grows between 200 - 1500 m altitudes. The tree grows up to 30 m high. It is an evergreen in nature.

It can be propagated by seeds, nursery raised seedlings and stem cuttings. When grown in seedbed, seed is sown in March to May. Best time for plantation is from July to August. Lopping is done from October/December and April/June.

 Bauhinia species: Tanki (Bauhinia purpurea Linn) and Koiralo (Bauhinia variegata Linn)

Bauhinia species are most popular native fodder trees. Both are deciduous in nature. Plant grow up to 10 m tall, however, the Koiralo plant grow up to 15m. Plant occurs at Southern to Middle belt regions from 300 m to 1800 masl. It belongs to the leguminous family. However, it does not fix atmospheric Nitrogen. The pod and flowers of Koiralo is consumed as vegetable.

Naturally grown plant is protected along the bunds and the terrace risers in the crop field. It can be propagated by seeds and nursery raised seedlings. Branch cuttings and stumps are also used for propagation. When grown in seedbed, seed is sown in March to May, the seedpod ripens two months later (i.e. March to June) (Napier and Robbins, 1989). Lopping is done from October/November to March/April. The fodder production varies from 10- 72 kg DM/tree (Warmald et al, 1983; Amatya, 1990). The CP content is up to 30 percent.

 Caragana: Caragana brevispina and Caragana geradiana

Caragana are the shrub of steppe region. The shrub is found in the rain shadow area of Nepal like Mustang, Manang district.

C. geradiana is found at the elevation of 3000-4000m whereas C. brevispina occurs at the higher elevation than C. geradiana at 4200-5000masl. C. geradiana grow up to 80 m tall. C. brevispina is bigger than C. geradiana, grows up to 120 m tall. It is highly nutritious, provides green fodder during the dry season. It is browsed by sheep and goats.

 Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan (L. Millsp)

It is a multipurpose leguminous fodder shrub grows up to 3 m high. It is mainly used as pulse crop in Nepal. It is drought tolerant. It is suitable to grow in Southern and Middle Belt up to 1500 m.

Some Indian cultivars of fodder type were introduced at Pokhara Livestock Farm in around 1988 but the plant failed to establish (Shrestha et al, 1990). Later in 1990 it was reintroduced by Nepal Agroforestry Foundation and tested at Manthali, Ramechhap and Kabhre. It produced 3 -4 ton DM/ha in 2-4 cuttings a year (April - May) (Pandit, 1992).

 Dudhilo (Ficus nemoralis)
It is a most popular fodder tree of western region. It naturally grows between 1200 - 2400 m altitudes. The tree grow up to 30 m high It is a deciduous in nature, old leaves shade during December - January and new flush starts from February - March. The plant remains bare only for short period.

It can be propagated by seeds and nursery raised seedlings and stem cuttings. Branch cuttings and stumps are also used for propagation. When grown in seedbed, seed is sown in March to May. Best time for plantation is from July to August.

It flowers during February to March, the seed ripens two months later i.e. March - June (Napier and Robbins, 1989).

Lopping is done from October/December and April/June. The fodder production varies from 20 to 55 kg/tree. The CP content is up to 12.3 percent. The foliage contains glucocides 'Saponin' which have side affects to animals and may cause Haematuria.

 Bhimal (Grewia optiva)

It is a most important fodder tree of western region. It naturally grows between 500 - 1800 m altitudes. It is a medium sized plant. The tree grows up to 15 m high. Old leaves shed on March - April and new flush starts from April - May. The plant remains bare leaf during March- April.

It can be propagated by seeds and nursery raised seedlings and stem cuttings. Branch cuttings and stumps are also used for propagation. When grown in seedbed, seed is sown in March to May. Best time for plantation is from July to August. It flowers during April - June, the fruit ripens from October - December. Fruits are edible.

Lopping is done from October - February and May - June. The fodder production varies from 35 - 130 kg/tree. The best fodder no side affects has been reported. The CP content is up to 18.8 percent.

 Oak (Quercus leucotrichophora)

It is a most important fodder tree of temperate region. It naturally grows between 1200 - 2500 m altitudes. The tree grows up to 30 m high. It is an evergreen in nature; new flush starts from March - April.

It can be propagated by seeds and nursery raised seedlings and stem cuttings. Branch cuttings and stumps are also used for propagation. When grown in seedbed, seed is sown in March to May. Best time for plantation is from July to August.

It flowers during April - May, the fruit (acorn) ripens on December - January.

Lopping is done from November - March and May - June. The fodder production varies from 55 - 160 kg/tree. The CP content is up to 11.6 percent. The new flush contains high concentration of tannins, which could have side affects to animals if consumed in large quantity.

11.5.2 Exotic Browse Species
 Kaliandra (Calliandra calothyrus Meissn)

It is a multipurpose leguminous fodder shrub grows up to 5 m high. It is drought tolerant but does not thrive under water logged conditions. It is suitable to all over Nepal ranging from Terai to mountains up to 1500 masl. The plant is propagated by seeds. If the seed is treated with hot water prior to seeding rapid germination could be obtained. If the nursery raised seedlings to be planted the seedlings should be of 4--6 months old at the time of planting. The planting distance should be 2 X 2 or 1 X 1 m. The fodder is highly nutritious; CP content is about 22 percent. It produces 7- 10 ton DM /ha of fodder (RAPA, 1987). The plant is also used for ornamental purpose, erosion control and green manuring.

It was tested at Rampur Chitwan (3220 m) in 1983. The seed was brought from Hetaunda, Forestry Institute, the performance was good. Within the six months of age the plant attended 0.3-m high and the survival rate was 93 percent an up to the age of six month (Shah, et al, 1990). It was also promoted by Nepal Agroforestry Foundation in around 1990 and tested at Manthali, Ramechhap (altitude 500 masl) and Kabhre district. The seed was brought from NifTAL, USA. It can be sown directly onto the steep slops and poor sites. It gives 4 cuttings a year (April - May) and produces 46 ton/ha of fresh fodder (Pandit, 1992).

 Tagasaste (Chamaecytisus palmensis) (Christ) Hutch.

Tagasaste is leguminous shrub of temperate climate. It is a fast growing, drought resistant shrub of 4-5 m tall. This shrub is quite popular in New Zealand and Australia. The DM Production is up to 25 Mt DM/ha on a 1000 plant/ha basis. The plant is relatively free from disease and pest.

Tagasaste is highly nutritious, CP content is about 22 % and digestibility is 71 percent. There is no any side effect reported to be found in tagasaste.

Tagasaste was introduced at Khumaltar in around 1984. The plant germinated and grew up to knee height during the dry season but wilted and died during the rainy season due to the water logged conditions (LP Sharma: Personal communication). It was reintroduced in 1991 by the author and tested at Khumaltar. The plant well established and started to flower also but later the plant was uprooted and removed by the authority (Plate - 9)

 Flemingia (Flemingia congesta Roxb.)

It is a leguminous fodder shrub grows up to 2 m high. It has trifoliate leaves. It is popularly known as "Bhatmase" in Nepal. It is drought tolerant as well as survives short water logging conditions. It is suitable to all over Nepal ranging from Southern Terai to mountains up to 1200 m. It is also used as bush plant to support the creeping legumes such as Centro, kudzu Seratro and others.

It was introduced by Nepal Agroforestry Foundation in around 1990 and tested at Manthali, Ramechhap and Kabhre district. The seed was brought from NifTAL, USA.

It is popularly grown at terrace edge of the lowland. It gives 6 cuttings a year (April - May) and produces 44 ton/ha of fresh fodder (Pandit, 1992).

 Gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Steud.) (Syn. Gliricidia maculata (H.B.K.) Stued.

It is a fast growing deciduous leguminous shrub. It grows up to 10 m. It prefers tropical/subtropical climate and high rainfall. It could be grown in Southern Terai and hills up to 1500 m but performs well under high rainfall areas. It can be propagated by seeds, seedlings and stem cuttings. For better germination seed should be treated with hot water for 2-3 minutes prior to seeding. It is highly nutritious. The CP content is about 20 percent. The root, barks and seeds are poisonous to cattle (Smith and Van Houtert, 1987).

It was considered as a substitute for Leucaena leucocephala. The plant was introduced by Forest Research Division in 1984 and tested at Bara district. In the 18 months of age the plant attended 3.3-m height. The plant was observed to flourish well at Palpa, Tamagadhi and Rampur (Neil, 1990).

It was tested at Rampur Chitwan (3220 m) in 1983. The seed was brought from Hetaunda, Forestry Institute and the performance was found good. It was observed that the plant coppices well (Shah, et al, 1990).

It was also introduced by DLS/Second Livestock Development Project. 10 kg of seed was imported from Australia and tested at Janakpur, Ranjitpur and Pokhara Farm. The performance has not been recorded yet.

 Guazuma (Guazuma ulmifolia L./OR Guazuma tomentosa)

It is a leguminous fodder shrub grows up to 5 m high. It is drought tolerant as well as survives short water logging conditions. It is suitable to all over Nepal ranging from Terai to mountains up to 1500 m.

Forestry Research Institute introduced it in 1985. It performed well. The plant was established in 1986 July during November 1990 the fodder yield was 10.1 kg/tree and in My, 1991 fodder yield was 13.3 (Amatya, 1992). It was also tested by Nepal Agroforestry Foundation in around 1990. The plant was established at Manthali, Ramechhap and Kabhre district. The seed was brought from NifTAL, USA.

It is popularly grown at terrace edge of the cropland. It gives 3-4 cuttings a year (April - May) and produces reasonable quantity of fodder (Nepal Krish Ban Pratisthan: Nepal Agroforestry Foundation, 1993).

 Ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit.

It is the most popular and widely grown multipurpose fodder species at tropical region of the world. It can be grown from low-lying Terai to 1500-m altitude.

The species is widely used for fuelwood, timber and green manuring purposes. It is also used as windbreaks, firebreaks, shade and ornamentation. It can be grown in the tropical and subtropical climate. Depending on variety leucaena grow up to 20 m high.

Fodder is highly nutritious, digestible and palatable to cattle, buffalo and goats. Due to the memosine content it is not recommended to the non-ruminants and sheep as it causes some side effects.

Plant starts flowering at the age of 4 years. It flowers through out the year except December - January. It bears long and flat seed pot. The seedpods mature after 3-4 months of flowering.

It is propagated by direct seeding and from nursery seedling or stump cuttings. For better germination the seed should be emerged in hot water (80 .C) for about 2-3 minutes prior to seeding. Usually planted in 1 by 1-m spacing.

Leucaena leucocephala was introduced in around 1980 under the DLS/Livestock Development Project and tested at Janakpur, Ranjitpur, Pokhara and other places. The performance of leucocephala was found very promising and also liked by the farmers. It was used as a per species by the Government agency for multipurpose use such as fodder, fuelwood and for soil improvement.

In 1983, seven different strains of Leucaena such as CIAT 17388, CIAT 17474, CIAT 17477, K 8, K 28 and K 67 were introduced and tested at Pokhara. The seed was brought from CIAT (Pradhan, 1988; Shrestha, 1987).

During the late 1990s the popularity of the leucocephala started to decline due to the psylllid problem. Alternative to leucocephala many psyllid resistant varieties were introduced and tested in Nepal.

In 1990, Second Livestock Development Project/DLS imported 100 kg of leucaena CV Cunningham from Australia and distributed at Janakpur, Ranjitpur and Pokhara Farm. The performance has yet to be reported.

Varieties like K- 8 and K- 636 were tested at Bauhinepati under World Neighbor. K- 636 was found good for Terai and K- 8 performed well at lower hills (Napier and Robbins, 1989).

b. Leucaena diversifolia (Schlecht) Benth.

It is a cold- tolerant species of leucaena (Brewbaker, 1983). It is also known to be psyllid resistant variety of Leucaena.

In 1983, four different strains of L. diversifolia viz. CIAT–17388,CIAT 17461,CIAT 17485, CIAT 17505, CIAT 17489, CIAT 17503 were introduced and tested at Pokhara. The seed was brought from CIAT (Pradhan, 1988; Shrestha, 1987).

Similarly, three varieties were tested at Rampur (altitude 320 masl) viz. K 29; K 156 and Nizgarh in 1983. The performance was quite good (Shah, Sapkota, Barakoti, Thapa and Nepal, 1990).

The cultivars are most promising for Terai and hills. It can grow at higher altitude up to 1300 m (Napier and Robbins, 1987).

 Black Locust (Robinia pseudocacia L.)

It is a tall tree like deciduous plant grows up to 30 m high. It is a native of North America. The plant is adapted to Temperate Zone. It can propagate by seeds, seedlings, and root suckers. The foliage is used as fodder to the livestock, as well as silage production in Bhutan (Nordmeyer, 1988) It can grow in between 1500 - 3500 m altitude in Nepal.

The old leaves shed on November/December and new leaves come out in March/April. The plant bears flower on April/May. The plant bears pod and pod matures during September/October. It can be propagated from seeds, root suckers.

It was tested at Rampur Chitwan (3220 masl) in 1983. The seed was brought from Hetaunda, Forestry Institute, the plant could not be established however, the performance was good (Shah, et al, 1990). Forest Research Division in around 1984 also tested it. The plant was observed to flourish well at Mustang region. It provides fodder during October/November and May - June. The fodder production varies from 50-240 kg/tree. It is highly nutritious CP content is 21.6 percent. TDN percent is 43 and Tannins 1.9 percent to be found in the foliage.

 Sesbania (Sesnbania grandiflora (L.) Poir

It is a fast growing tree like fodder shrub grows up to 10 m high. It is drought tolerant as well as survives short water logging conditions. It is suitable to sub tropical climate and could be grown in Terai and Hills up to 1000 masl. It is frost sensitive could be grown only in frost-free regions. It is also used as ornamental purpose. The flowers and pods are used as vegetable.

It was tested at Rampur Chitwan (3220 m) in 1983. The seed was brought from Hetaunda, Forestry Institute the performance was found good. Within the six months of age the plant attended 0.92-m high and the survival rate was 80 percent an up to the age of six month (Shah, et al, 1990). It was also tested by Nepal Agroforestry Foundation in around 1990 at Manthali, Ramechhap (altitude 500 masl). The seed was brought from NifTAL, USA. It is popularly grown at terrace edge of the lowland. It gives 3-4 cuttings a year (April - May) (Pandit, 1992).

1.6 Limitations of Browse
• Presence of secondary compounds: Most of the browse species contain a wide range of inhibitors such as alkaloids, amino acids, cyanogenic, glycosides, organic acids hydrocyanic acids etc. (Bulter and Balay 1773; Panday, 1982; Barry and Blaney, 1987). These secondary compound affects on forage quality and animal performance by various mean. Pandey (1982) listed some species of browse trees and shrubs, which have ill effect on ruminant such as Bauhinia varietaga, Ficus roxburghii, Prunus ceresoides. Shrestha and Pakhrin (1989) concluded that the presence of high concentration of tannin in Ficus auriculata might be the reason for the decreased milk yield in buffaloes during the experimental period conducted at PAC, Dhankuta. Common secondary compounds found in some browse species:Leucaena leucocephala contains memosine; Gliricidia sepium- Caumarin; Salix spp- Tannins; Grewia tiliaefolia- organic acid Seneria jacobaea - Pyrrolizidine

• Production potential: Most of the browse tree/shrubs take 5 to 20 years to yield significant amount of fodder in Nepal (Pandey 1982; Hopkins, 1985). Individual DM yields is also low. Pandey (1982) estimated that on an average a mature browse tree/shrub produces 15-60 kg DM per year. Many indigenous browse species are difficult to establish and propagate, they requires certain altitude and ecological conditions. Altitude and lower radiation is the main reason for low DM yields. Most of the browse trees/shrubs produce relatively high amount of DM at lower altitude than do in high altitude. Pandey and Nosberger (1985) observed that at high radiation the growth pattern of Artocarpus lakoocha was higher compared to low radiation (<15 MJ/sq./d). Similarly, the rate of leaf appearance was lower at higher altitude (1200m and 1500 m) compared to low altitude (800m). At altitude 800m the maximum rate of leaf appearance in Artocarpus lakoocha was 118 leaves/month whereas at 1200 m and 1500 m the maximum rate of leaf appearance was 45 and 10 leaves/month respectively in hill area near Kathmandu (Pandey and Nosberger, 1985).

• Choice of browse species: There are over 550 species of tree/shrubs used as feed source in worldwide origin (Robinson, 1984). Pandey (1982) and Bajracharya et al (1985) mentioned that over 136 species of tree/shrubs have been used as a source of feed in Nepal. Feed value of indigenous browse species is assumed as low compared to introduced leguminous shrub species such as leucaena. Fast growing multipurpose shrubby species are much beneficial than do the tree species. Lower growing shrubby species offer much greater potential compared to tree species from the management point of view as well. Shrubby species can be grazed directly without additional labour cost of lopping or harvesting whereas fodder from tree species must be obtained by lopping of branches.

References:
Panday,

Yak Farming in Nepal

2007-03-25T01:09:00.000-07:00

Yak farming in Nepal

By- Rameshwar Singh Pande, 2007
"Yak expedition", "Yak tours", “yak & Yati”, "A yak for Christmus", are some familiar words for most of us. There are many legends related to Yak. Still Yak is a mysterious beast for most of us. Yak is a Himalayan cattle; native to the Himalayan region of Nepal, Bhutan, China and India. It is the only domestic animal, which survive and thrive in the high Himalayan region. They are the prime source of milk, meat, wool and track power in the Himalayan regions. Yak are the excellent pack animal for the expeditions to Mount Everest. The Yak has been always underrated except to the semi- nomadic peoples of the high Himalayan region. Wild yak (the progeny of domesticated Yak) is rapidly extinction. It is endangered species of the World. There is little information on Yak farming. Present World population of Yak is estimated to be 14 million, out of this approx. 0.2 million Yak and its crosses are found in Nepal.

Yak is a male animal and female is called Nak in Nepali; are pure breed Himalayan cattle. The scientific name is Bos grunniens. Yak and Nak reared at higher altitude regions and seldom comes below 3,000 m. Yak is raised in 22 Himalayan districts of Nepal along the Tibetan boarders. It has long hairs and pointed horns. The adult body weight of a male is about 245 kg and of female Nak is about 215 kg. Yak and Nak provides milk and meat for human consumption. Castrated yak used as pack animal and could carry up to 120 kg of weight. Yak skins are used for making bags, sacks and other materials. Fibbers are used for making ropes and blanket (‘radi’). Yak steak (dried yak meat) is quite popular among the tourists. FAO/RAPA (1994) estimate that the total production of yak steak is 5 Mt/yr.

Yaks are very hardy animal and nomadic in nature. The mouth parts are adapted to graze very short grasses, quickly and efficiently. Their legs and hooves are very strong and suitable to walk in steep terrain and precipitous places. They can thrive on poor quality roughages. In the high altitude regions the growing season of crops and grasses are very short. The average temperature is approximately zero degree Celsius. Most of the year grazinglands are covered with snow. During this period either they are fed with poor quality hay or they have to rely on shrubby foliage. Their grazing behaviour is quite adapted to the harsh alpine climate. They graze at any time during the 24 hrs period. In search of a mouthful of grass or hay they even paw the snow layer up to 8 -12 cm thick with their head and face.

Yak & cattle and vice versa are crossed to produce hybrids. The crosses of yak (Bos grunniens) and local hill cow (Bos indicus) and vice versa are called Chauri. The Chauri are more productive than female yak and are more adaptive to lower altitudes and are reared at the intermediate zone between cattle and yak. Chauri farming is a main source of households’ income in the Himalayan regions.

The Chauri are reared under migratory systems, grazing in alpine/sub-alpine pastures during summer and feeding fodder tree leaves during winter. Due to continuous lopping, the forest fodder most of the browse species are threatened to its existing (Pradhan, S.L; D. Miller, D.K. Hitchcock. 2000, Joshi, 2002; Pande 2004). The herders are abandoning the Chauri farming occupations and shifting into other businesses, mainly due to lack of adequate pastures, low production of Chauri, hardship, low return compared to investment, and poor animal health care services.

The female Chauri are more productive than Nak. The hybrids are more adaptive to lower temperature and are reared at the intermediate zone between cattle and Yaks at the altitude between 2000-5000 metre (Joshi, 1982; Robinson 1992; Miller 1993). The population of the pure Yak/Nak is rapidly declining. It is estimated that there are 56 thousands of Yak and Chauris in Nepal (Miller, 1993). Out of the total Yak/Chauris population the pure Yak/Nak population is only 10,000.
The performances of the Yak/Nak are:
· The age of first calving is 48 months,
· The milk yield is 470 Lt/lactation
· The calving interval is 687 days,
· The lactation length is about 174 days.

The performances of the Chauri' are:
· The age of first calving is 36 months,
· The milk yield is 1960 Lt/lactation
· The calving interval is 425 days,
· The lactation length is 254-400 days.

Generally breeding takes during the months of August to November and calving takes place in the months of April to July.

Milk production capability of a Chauri is more than Nak. The milk produced from Nak and Chauri are used for making Yak cheese, which is quite popular among the tourist. There are altogether 20 Yak cheese (11 under Dairy Development Corporation and 9 under private sector) (Pande 1996). Total Yak cheese production is about 120 Mt in FY 2004/05. Government of Nepal has established a Yak Farm at Solukhumbu in 1973/74 for the development of Yak/Nak and Chauri. There was another Yak Farm at Dolpa, which was closed down in 1994 (Pande, 1996).
Pande (2004) studied the yak/chauri production system in upper slopes of Sindhupalchok and describedthe folowing results:
Trend of Chauri population and herd size
The Chauri population and the herd size are decreasing each year. About five years ago, the population was approximately double (Table 1). Compared to the Chauri population, the number of herders maintains approximately the same during the last five years. However, in Tasitang village the number of the herders has been decreased. About five years ago on average each herder reared 20-25 Chauris but these days a herder is rearing only 10-15 Chauris. For example, in Kyangsing village, there were about 40-45 herders and the population of Chauri was about 1200 five years ago. They are reduced to 800 heads of Chauris and 33 herders.
Each year the production of Chauri calf are also decreasing. The estimated production of Chauri per year is 70-100 only (Tasitang - 10; Temathan (Gumba) - 40-50, Kyangsing - 20-40) in the Upper Slopes Areas of Sindhupalchok.
The identified causes for the reduction in the number are: 1) casualty by leopard (e.g. during last year, the casualty of Chauris was over 105 by leopard from Tasitang, Bagam, Chhagam and Kyangsing villages); 2) high incidence of diseases (10-12 deaths each year from Tasitang, Bagam, Chhagam and Kyangsing areas); 3) natural death; 4) live export to Tibet (for meat purpose); and 5) others.

Estimated Chauri population and herd numbers in Upper Slopes, Sindhupalchok. Village , number of herds and number of Chauri (In bracket)

Kyangsing, Gumba -33(800); Bagam, Listi- 23 (350); Chhagam, Listi- 11 (156); Tasitang, Tatopani- 6(80); Sapukhani, Listi- 4 (50); Temathang, Gumba -33 (500); Liping, Tatopani-13(220); Bokchen, Tatopani- 8(150); Total- 131 (2306).
It was discussed that about five years ago the community people had the only option to rear Chauri as a means of livelihoods but nowadays they became selective to choose from various options such as: 1) trading (Tibet-Nepal); 2) migrating to Kathmandu/Tatopani and other places; 3) going Malaysia and/or Arabian countries for employment; and 4) seasonal migration to India.
The new generation does not want to be involved in Chauri farming business because it is very hardy and return is also nominal. It was agreed that even the conditions of pastures would be improved, the Chauri population will remain the same, on the other hand, if the conditions remain the same, the population will reduce drastically.
The participants cited an example of Helambu village (neighboring village located in 4-5 days walking distance) where a few years ago the Chauri population was more than 2500 heads but now none is rearing a single Chauri. The same phenomenon could happen in these areas also, if the problem remains the same. The present herders are also keen to sale their herds and want to shift into other businesses. Most of the Chauri herders are keen to replace the Chauris with improved cattle (Jersey and/or Brown Swiss) if cows would be available to them and management skill would be provided.

Chauri breeding systems

Chauris are the products of yak and hill cattle (Aule gai) and/ or Kirko (bull) and Nak (female yak) (Joshi, 1982). Most of the yak reared in Upper Slope Areas is the progeny of yak and hill cow.
The yak are brought from Tibet and/or Rasuwa and they are expensive. One adult yak costs about NRs 25000.00-32000.00/each (NRs 75 = 1 US$). There is a shortage of yak bulls also. About three yak bulls are reared in Kyangsing and another three in Tasitang in the Upper Slope Areas (at altitudes of 2700- 2900 m).
The yak bulls are selected based on following criteria: 1) at least three years of age; 2) physically fit, strong and stout; 3) well developed and pointed horn; and 4) white in coat color.
Farmers reported that the Chauri born from “Kirko” (Tibetan cattle) cow and yak is much better than the Chauri from yak and hill cow. There is no systematic approach followed for selection of yak and/or cow for Chauri production. Participants were keen to improve the performance of Chauri through genetic upgrading, and cited the example that one of the herders practiced crossing between Jersey cow and the yak and the Chauri (progeny) is quite good in milk production. However, it is difficult for mating between Jersey cow and the yak. So, herders were proposing A.I. for Chauri production from improved cow and yak.

Pasture and feeding systems
The availability of pastures and fodder is becoming scarce. The Chauri remains in alpine pastures (3000-4500 m) for two months of July and August and the rest of the year in lower altitude oak forest (2500-3000 m). The oak forest has been seriously lopped out and threatened to its existence. Due to the shortage of pastures, the productivity of the Chauris has been decreased significantly and the Chauri farming business is no more beneficial. If the productivity of the pastures would not be improved and/or the supply of forage could not be adequate, the herders will starts abandoning the Chauri farming business within next five years.
The participants identified following measures for the improvements of the pasturelands and forage development:
· Renovation of native pasturelands by over-sowing with improved species (perennial rye grass, cocksfoot, white clover and others).
· Clearance of weeds and fallen trees from the pasturelands.
· Provision for drinking water, trails, bridges for easy access to the pasturelands.
· If the alpine pastures could be improved, the Chauri could stay for three months and will reduce the grazing pressure in oak forest.
· The on-farm pasture could be developed between the altitudes of 2500 to 2800 m for Chauris.
· Alpine and/or cold tolerant fodder trees should be planted as a source of fodder.
· Involvement of all herders in the formation of the Central Committee under the Forest User Group for the development of policies for pastureland management.

Animal health conditions
The major diseases are FMD, Red water, infertility and parasites (such as tick, flea, worms and others), which occur mainly during summer season (March/April to June/July). Each year about 10-12 Chauris die from various diseases. There is a lack of veterinary services provider. The only Veterinary Service Center is located in about 4-6 h walking distance. The farmers are adopting some local medicines to cure some diseases, for example, animals got Red water disease are fed on “Chhyang” (a locally brewed alcohol) and mustard oil, Tibetan tea leaves, the excreta of insects collected from trees and others.

Chauri products and it marketing
The major Chauri products are Chhurpi (dried yak Cheese), Ghee (butter oil), Soh-si (by-product of the ‘Dhundre/Theki’ milk bucket and used for soup making), skin (mat), tail-switch (for religious purpose), Jopkyo (for meat and pack) and others. The most of the ghee produced in the areas are consumed locally (by Ani-Gumba at Chhagam) and/or collected by traders to export to Tibet. Most of the Chhurpi produced is sold to the traders, who visit the herds regularly and export to Kathmandu and India. The recent price of the Chhurpi was NRs 440.00 and for ghee NRs 500.00 per Dharni (about 2.5 kg), respectively. Herders are happy with the price and the marketing systems.
Some male Chauri and/or old unproductive Chauris are sometimes exported to Tibet for meat purpose, through illegal way, because the HMG/Nepal regulations do not allow export the live Chauri to other countries. In the other side, the Tibetan government does not allow entering the live animals from the quarantine point of view.

Training needs
The herders identified following topics for the training: 1) field level training to herders in ‘animal health improvement’; 2) quality Chhurpi making training to all Chhurpi makers; 3) improved crossbred cattle farming tour and training; 4) hay making training in situ to the herders; 5) establishment of pasture and fodder tree nurseries; 6) training on fodder conservation such as hay- making; 7) establishment of improved pasturelands for demonstration; and 8) others.

Conclusion
Development of infrastructures (roads, markets) and easy access to Kathmandu and Tibetan markets has attracted the young generations in other lucrative occupations. The young generations are being attracted towards the Arabian and other countries for seasonal jobs. Present security situations have deteriorated the life of the rural people, especially the younger are reluctant to stay in village areas. On the other hand, the Chauri herders, who keeps the tradition, are finding difficulties to continue the Chauri farming occupations as a means of livelihoods mainly due the acute shortage of feeds and fodder, high incidence of predators, lack of insurance, credit facilities, lack of veterinary services, hardship in Chauri farming business, harsh environment conditions and others. Interventions to improve the present conditions are urgently needed, otherwise the Chauri/yak farming will be a chapter of history in this areas.

Reference:

Joshi, D.D. 1982. Yak and Chauri husbandry in Nepal.
Miller, D.J. 1987. Yaks and grasses: pasturalism in the Himalayan countries of Nepal and Bhutan and Strategies for sustained development. UNDP.
FAO/RAPA (1994), Selected Indicators of Food and Agriculture Development in Asia-Pacific Region, 1992/93. Bangkok
Pande, R.S. 1996.Livestock development: In search of greener pastures. The Risisng Nepal. October 4, 1996.
Pande, R.S. 2004. Chauri Production systems in Upper Slopes Areas, Sindhupalchok, Nepal. Fourth International Congress on Yak, September 20-26, 2004 Chngdu, China

About AtoZ-Nepal

2007-03-25T00:47:00.000-07:00

AtoZ-Nepal is a statistical information portal provides updated key statistics on Nepal's economy, education, culture, history, geography, natural resources, education, environment, government and non-government organization, tourism, sports, major political parties and contemporary political issues/events and other information. The information/data are listed in order of A to Z sequence to make it easier to search. The site is useful to all professionals, researchers, policy makers, planners, students, teachers, writers, tourist and all person(s) interested in Nepal.

The site is created by Rameshwar S Pande

All About Nepal: Area and Land Use of Nepal

2007-03-20T00:15:00.000-07:00

Area & Land use of Nepal

Land use pattern of Nepal:

The total land of Nepal comprises about 14.7 million ha. Out of the total land area agricultural land occupy approximately 27 percent. All the agricultural land is not used under crop cultivation, it is estimated that about 20 percent of the total land is under cropping. Approx. 11.5 percent total land area is occupied by rangelands. Most of the rangelands are located in northern belt. About 38.1 percent of the land is under forests and about 4.7 under shrub and burn plantation. The land use pattern is rapidly changing; increasing pressure of human as well as livestock is the major factor for its manipulation.

Source: HMG/Nepal, Land Resource Mapping Project, 1986

CV- RS Pande

2007-03-18T00:04:00.000-07:00

CURRICULUM VITAE

1. Personal Information
Name : Rameshwar Singh Pande
Date of Birth: 26/11/1952
Profession: Livestock/agriculture for livelihoods/community development
Nationality: Nepali
Email:rspande@mail.com.np; panderameshwar@gmail.com

Telephone: 977 1 4460861 (Res). 9841345082 (mobile)
Address: Chabahil, Adrash Basti Marg 162//5, GPO Box 10245, Kathmandu, Nepal

2. Key Qualifications:

Mr Rameshwar S. Pande possess over 25 years sound track record of professional career with international multidisciplinary organizations contributing in livelihood improvements, rural/community development, poverty alleviation, food security and natural resource management based on livestock and agricultural initiations. During his professional career Mr. Pande, served in URS Australia managed Nepal Australia Community Resource Management and Livelihoods Project (NACRMLP) as a Livestock Specialist from 2002-2005, TYPSA International for European Commission funded Gulmi-Arghakhanchi Rural Development Project, (GARDP II) as a Livestock and Agricultural Specialist from 1998-2002, CARE International in Nepal as a Agro-forester in 1992, FAO/UNDP (RAS/79/121) Himalayan Fodder and Pasture Research Network (India, Pakistan, Bhutan and Nepal) as a Program Planner from 1991-1992 including His Majesty’s Government of Nepal, Department of Livestock Services as a Livestock Development Officer. Mr. Pande holds M. Agr. Sc. (Hons) from New Zealand and participated in various training and workshop such as “Security, Safety and Risk Management” and “Social Inclusion/Gender” organized by Canadian Cooperation Office and CCO/SNV, Security and Safety Office (SSO), Nepal during 2005; “Do No Harm” Project management strategies in context of conflict situation” and “Log-frame Analysis” “Results-based Management” organized by Nepal Australia Community Resource Management and Livelihoods Project, Nepal during 2004 & 2005; "Training on Application of Geo Information Systems to Infrastructure and Resources Planning, Development and Management (GIS)", organized by South Asian Institute of Technology (SAIT) during 2002- 2003; "Project Appraisal Training Program" organized by Nepal Administrative Staff Collage during 1998 ; "Integrated Rural Development" organized by Institiut Penbangunan Tanah FELDA, Malaysia during 1984; and, others. Mr. Pande is a prolific writer his three books viz. ‘Fodder and Pasture Development in Nepal’, 1997, ‘Livestock Feeds and Grassland Development in Nepal (in Nepali)’, 1994 and, ‘Rural poultry Farming (in Nepali)’ 1984) and over 20 research/review articles published in national/international journals. He is a regular computer user and possess skills on Microsoft word & Excel, PowerPoint, GIS, Internet and others. He has valid license to drive light vehicles and traveled almost all parts of Nepal including Hindu-Kush Himalayan regions of India, Pakistan, Bhutan and traveled country like Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, New Zealand and some parts of Tibet. Mr. Pande’s mother tongue is Nepali, and he is very good in English, Hindi, Urdu and possess a little knowledge of Dutch language also.
3. Recent relevant assignments include:
Fodder Specialist: Agri-Business and Trade Promotion Multi-purpose Co-operative (ABTRACO) from 06/2005 – 03/06, Kathmandu, Nepal
Livestock Specialist: Nepal Australia Community Resource Management and Livelihoods Project from 04/2003 – 05/05, Kabhre/ Sindhupalchok/Kathmandu, Nepal
Livestock/agriculture Specialist: Gulmi Arghakhanchi Rural Development Project from 05/1998 – 03/03, Gulmi/Arghakhanchi, Kathmandu, Nepal
Livestock Officer: HMG/Nepal, Department of Livestock Services from 07/1997 – 04/1998, Bhojpur, Nepal
Livestock Officer: HMG/Nepal, Department of Livestock Services from 12/1992 – 06/1997, Lalitpur, Nepal
Agro-forester: CARE International, Nepal from 05/1992 – 11/1992, Mahottari, Nepal
Program Planner: FAO (RAS 79/121) Himalayan Pasture and Fodder Research Network from 01/1991 - 03/1992, Nepal, India, Bhutan, Pakistan
Livestock Officer: HMG/Nepal, Department of Livestock Services from 05/1981 – 12/1990, Biatadi, Janakpur, Rasuwa, Nepal

4. Education:

Master of Agricultural Science (M. Agr. Sc.) (Honors). During this period also completed Post Graduate Diploma in High Country Pasture and Fodder Research, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand. 1988- 1990
Diploma of Agriculture (B Sc Ag), Tribhuvan University, IAAS, Nepal, 1979-1980.
Diploma of Agricultural Education (Dip Ag Ed)), Tribhuvan University, IAAS, Nepal, 1976-1978.
Intermediate Examination of Science (I Sc) Tribhuvan University, MMC, Biratnagar, Nepal. 1970-74.
SLC Board Examination, Shri Saraswati High School, Biratnagar, Nepal. 1969

5. Membership of Professional Societies:

Member 2005-to date: Agri-Business and Trade Promotion Multi-purpose Co-operative (ABTRACO), GPO Box 4827.Kathmandu, Tel. 977 1 4269114.
Life Member (1990-todate) - Nepal Animal Science Association (NASA), Kathmandu
Member (1984-todate)- National Forage and Grassland Research Centre (NFGRC), Kathmandu, Nepal. Reg. no.293.17.051
Member (1991-1994)- Nepal Agriculture Association, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Member (1991)- Ecological Society (ECOS), Tribhuvan University, Nepal

6. Employment Record:
6.1 Project name: Agri-Business and Trade Promotion Multi-purpose Co-operative (ABTRACO) for the project "Transfer of Technologies of CFSH-30 to Nepal dairy Farmers to Raise their Income through milk Production" GPO Box 4827, Kathmandu, Nepal. Tel. 977 1 4269114.
Period: 06/ 2005 to 03/2006

Position Held: Member, ABTRACO; Fodder Specialist for CFSH-30 Project Project Description: The ABTRACO is a non-governmental organization founded in 2000 under the HMG/Nepal cooperative Act-2048 with Regd. No 670 by a group of professionals and businessmen for the promotion of agribusiness and trade. The project "Transfer of Technologies of CFSH-30 to Nepal dairy Farmers to Raise their Income through milk Production" is being implementing to promote year round fodder production and supply for the cost effective milk production systems in 12 districts in milk-shed areas in plains and mid-hills. The project is funded by Canadian Cooperation Office, Nepal with the CFSH-30 seed support from AERC Canada and implemented with the support of Nepal Agricultural Research Council and Department of Livestock Services, Nepal. Description of the duties and responsibilities:
Carrying out socio-economic survey and studies, capacity and skill enhancement on improved fodder production and livestock management to the milk producers, preparation of reports and conducting participatory action research on “CFSH-30” for ensured supply of quality fodder on year-round basis to dairy farmers in 12 milk-shed districts of Nepal. Also, working as a freelance writer to prepare books on: i) Livestock Feed and Forage Resources in Nepal. ii) Livestock Production on Grasslands of Nepal. iii) Commercial Livestock Production in Nepal (Nepalma Pashupankshi Palan Byabasay), and other. The books critically review the major issues on livestock, feeds and forage development, status of livestock and poultry production, scope, technologies for sustainable management and proposes strategies for livestock based livelihoods improvement especially of poor households based on community resources.

6.2 Project name: URS Sustainable Development, Australia/AusAID for Nepal Australia Community Resource Management & Livelihoods Project (NACRMLP), PO Box 208, Kathmandu, Nepal
Period: 04/2003- 05/2005. Position Held: Consultant (Livestock Specialist). Project Description: NACRMLP is jointly funded by HMG/Nepal and Government of Australia, managed by URS Sustainable Development Australia. The project has being implemented in two hill districts of Nepal since 2003 to mobilise the resources of community forests for the benefit of the poor and disadvantaged to improve their livelihoods. Description of the duties and responsibilities:
a) Conceptualized and tested various approaches to diversify the productivity and equitable sharing of community resources/benefit among the poorest groups through community forage production and micro-livestock development. b) Community mobilization and livelihoods improvement focusing on poorest and women members. c) Implemented "Livelihoods Improvement Plan (LIP)", Women Empowerment Program (WEP) and other activities. d) Project planning, management and administration. e) Supervised, coordinated and managed day to day activities with the support of about 20 staff at District Office Sindhupalchok. f) Conducted field based research, socio-economic studies and impact evaluation, analyzed data and published reports. g) Identified training needs, developed training programs, facilitated study tours, workshops, meetings and discussions. h) Contributed/prepared annual reports, proposal, lesson learned reports, extension materials, developed training curricula and reference manuals i) Represented in seminar, workshop and published papers in international magazine/proceedings based on project initiatives and experiences.
Project name: TYPSA International for Gulmi - Arghakhanchi Rural Development Project (GARDP II), Kathmandu, Nepal
Period: 05/1998 – 03/2003

6.3 Position Held: Consultant (Livestock/Agriculture Specialist)
Project Description: The GARDP II is supported by European Commission (EC). The project was implemented in two hill districts of Nepal viz. Gulmi and Arghakhanchi. The project was started in 1997 and phased out in 2003. The project was managed by TYPSA International.
Description of the duties and responsibilities:
a) Initiated modalities and approaches on small-scale agro/livestock-based income generating activities for enhanced livestock and agricultural production. b) Developed sub-project documents for overall program planning, budgeting, implementing, monitoring and reporting. c) Prepared strategies paper, annual reports, six monthly reports, identified farmer’s needs for the improvements of the rural economy by enhancing the production and productivity of the agricultural/livestock commodities. d) Developed monitoring and evaluation packages for staff, programs and User's Group. e) Facilitated to implement food security, improved nutrition and income generation activities focusing on poor, DAG and women members. f) Coordinated and organized training to the farmers & technical staff. g) Facilitated in market and marketing development for agricultural/livestock products; and promoted small-scale rural enterprises for the income generation and economic development. h) Conceptualized and practiced the saving and credit programs in most of the livestock/agricultural related Users Groups by establishing Revolving Fund and operating saving programs by the respective UGs and others comprising mainly disadvantage groups, women and poorest of the poor households. i) Developed and implemented emergency relief program of income generation and skill improvements to the households affected from natural disaster (flooding, landslide) and the households affected from social conflict. j) Identified needs for training, facilitated/organized training, meeting, workshops and observation tours. k) Coordinated/ liaison with GOs/INGOs relating to community based activities. l) Prepared extension materials, training manual for farmers and technical staff. Prepared progress reports (monthly, six monthly. and annual) extension/training and manuals. m) Involved in data base preparation of major economic crops and market areas using GIS .

6.4 Project name: HMG/Nepal, Department of Livestock Services
Period: 07/1997 – 04/1998. Position Held: Livestock Officer/ Chief of the District Office, Bhojpur. Project Description: The Department of Livestock Services is the sole government organization of Nepal for the overall development livestock in the country. It has regional, zonal, district and village branches all over the country. Description of the duties and responsibilities: The Department of Livestock Services is the sole organization involved in overall livestock development in Nepal. Served as an office in-charge and was responsible for: overall program planning, implementation, budget operation and supervision of district level livestock development activities (breed improvement, feeds and forage development, animal health care). Administration, budget operation and supervising over 60 staff. During this period also contributed as a Forage Expert under Forage Resources Development Project, APROSC, Kathmandu, contributed to formulate and implement forage and pasture improvement programs/activities to the milk producers of the 5 hill districts (Ilam, Terhathum, Tanahu, Syanja and Parwat).
6.6 Project name: HMG/Nepal, Department of Livestock Services
Period: 12/1992 – 06/1997. Position Held: Livestock Officer/ Chief of the District Office, Bhojpur. Project Description: The Department of Livestock Services is the sole government organization of Nepal for the overall development livestock in the country. It has regional, zonal, district and village branches all over the country. Description of the duties and responsibilities: Worked as a founder Chief of the Pasture and Nutrition Section. Contributed to execute planning, implementation of fodder, pasture and rangeland development activities by developing guidelines, directives to execute feeds, forage and rangeland improvement activities in the country, Supervision and monitoring of forage and rangeland development programs carried out by district level offices and farms of Department of Livestock Services, Prepared annual progress report of " Pasture and Nutrition Development Section FY 1995/96". Worked as resource person on pasture, fodder and rangeland development program. Contributed and supported as an assistant Coordinator of Livestock Component to execute IFAD funded Hills Leasehold Forestry and Forage Development Project in the mid hills districts. Coordinated and supported to execute fodder and pasture development activities of ADB funded Upper Sagarmatha Agricultural Development Project in three mountain districts (Solukhumbu, Okhaldhunga and Khotang). Represented to HMG/N at regional Expert Meeting on Rangelands and pastoral Development in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan region, organised by ICIMOD from 5-7 November 1996. Represented/participated in workshop on stylo and berseem seed production and marketing in Nepal from May 30-31, 1995, organized by ATSP/USAID Nepal and Chemonics International Consulting Division, USA. Contributed to prepare HMG/N, Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-98- 2002-2003) as a Member Secretary to the Livestock Production Sub-Committee. Contributed as a Team member to prepare Project Reformulation Proposal of the ADB Project Upper Sagarmatha Agricultural Development Project. Initiated/established various farmers groups at private level e.g. Palpa Forage Development Association, Mahottari Forage Development Association and others. Represented to DLS as a member to the National Seed and Planting Material Board, MOA, HMG/Nepal. Contributed a s a member to Pasture and Fodder Research Panel, NARC, Nepal. Organized/conducted seminars, meetings and workshop. During this period also served as a Consultant on livestock and fodder improvement under Action Research on Forage and Pasture Development, Agricultural Projects Services Centre (APROSC).
6.6 Project name: CARE International, Nepal
Period: 05/1992 – 11/1992
Position Held: Agro-forester
Project Description: CARE International is an INGO worked for Natural Resource Management Project Mahottari, Nepal.
Description of the duties and responsibilities:
Lead agro-forestry unit; initiated/disseminated appropriate technologies on crop, vegetables, fruits, oil-seed production and cash crops at farmers' level. Initiated approaches on improved micro-livestock production and management activities (goats, pigs, poultry and rabbit, bee-keeping, sericulture, fish farming and others). During this period facilitated/organized training and workshop on various issues to stakeholder and subordinate staff.
6.7 Project name: FAO (RAS 79/121) Himalayan Pasture and Fodder Research Network.Period: 01/1991- 03/1992
Position Held: Programme Planner. Project Description: The FAO, (RAS 79/121, Himalayan Pasture and Reserach Networok (India, Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan) was a Regional Project among the member four Himalayan countries During the project period of 1987-1991, the project tested and introduced wide range of high altitude pasture species in Hindu-Kush Himalayan region for highland pasture development. The project was funded by FAO/UNDP. Description of the duties and responsibilities: Supported to organize and oversee overall research and development activities in the network countries; conducted/organized workshop/in -service training and technical meetings between networking countries.
6.8 Project name: Department of Livestock Services, Biatadi, Janakpur and Rasuwa Nepal.

a) Period: 05/1981- 12/1990. Position Held: Livestock Development Officer (Planning and Monitoring) Project Description: The Department of Livestock Services is the sole government organisation of Nepal for the overall development livestock in the country. It has regional, zonal, district and village branches all over the country. Description of the duties and responsibilities: Contributed to formulate strategy, norms and guidelines to implement livestock improvements, feeds, fodder and rangelands development activities in the country; training to the junior technical staff / farmers and others. Awarded scholarship to study Master’s course at Massey University, New Zealand;

Farm Manager, Pasture Development Farm, Rasuwa, Nepal. Performed pasture & fodder, agro forestry and silviculture development activities; improvement and renovation of native pasture lands; conducted research on fodder and seed production of native as well as exotic species; and other administrative and budget operation activities.
Assistant Livestock Development Officer, ADB funded Livestock Development Project. Performed overall livestock development activities and training such as breed improvement of local animal breed, feeds & fodder, animal health care and management, training to the farmers and other activities.
7. Overseas assignments: Malaysia, India, Bhutan, Pakistan, New Zealand.

8.Languages and degree of proficiency: English- Excellent, Hindi- Excellent, Nepali- Mother tongue

9. Publications:

Thesis Pande, R. S. 1990: Feed value of tagasaste (Chamaecytisus palmensis) for goats and preferential browsing activities by goats and sheep in multi- species shrub/pasture conditions. M Agr Sc Thesis, New Zealand: Massey University.

Books:

Pande, R. S. 1997: Fodder and Pasture Development in Nepal. Udaya Research and Development Services Pvt. Ltd, Sanepa, Distributor: Ratna Pustak Bhandar, Dillibazaar, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Pande, R. S. 1994 (2051 BS): (Nepalma Pashu Ahara tatha Charan Bikas: Livestock Feeds and Grassland Development in Nepal), National Forage and Grassland Research Centre, G.P.O. Box 10245, Kathmandu.
Pande, R. S. 1984 (2041 BS): Gaunma Kukhura Palan sahayak Pustika: Poultry Farming in Villages); Gramin Bikasko Nimti Shhiksha Pariyojana: UNESCO, Education Project for Rural Development.
Research/Review Papers:
Pande, RS 2006. Role of “Canadian Forage Sorghum Hybrid- 30” on year round fodder supply to small dairy farmers, Nepal” APANEWS, Asia-Pacific Agroforestry Newsletter No. 28, 2006 (in press).
Pande, RS 2005 “Pro-poor Community Forage Production Program in the Nepal Australia Community Resource Management and Livelihoods Project, Nepal” Proceedings of the Workshop on Fodder Oats, Fodder Technology Packages and Small Farm Income Generation. TCP/NEP/2901-Capacity Building for Fodder Oat Technologies in Nepal and sixth meeting of the Temperate Asia Pasture and Fodder Network, FAO 8-11 March 2005.
Pande, R S 2004. Ensuring forage supply from Nepal’s community forests. APANEWS, Asia-Pacific Agroforestry Newsletter No. 25. December 2004
Pande, R.S; P. D. Kemp; J Hodgson, 2002: Preference of goats and sheep for browse species under field conditions. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, 2002, Vol. 45:97-102. Also appeared in: www.rsnz.govet.nz/publish/nzjar/2002/opl.pb
Pande, R.S. and D. R. Pradhan, 1997: Nepal's Experience with Forage and Pasture Development and Forage Seed Production. Proceedings of the Regional Expert Meeting on ‘Rangelands and Pastoral Development in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan Region”. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Kathmandu, 1997
Pande, R.S. and D. R. Pradhan, 1997: Forage and Pasture Development and Forage Seed Production in Nepal. ‘Rangelands and Pastoral Development in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan Region”- Proceedings of a Regional Experts’ Meeting November 5-7, 1996. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Kathmandu, Nepal.
Pande, R. S. 1997: Promising Species for Fodder and Pasture Development in Nepal. Proceeding of the II nd National Conference on Science and Technology, June 8-11, 1994. Royal Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (RONAST), 1997
Pande, R. S. 1996: Livestock, Farmers and Environment. Environment (A Journal of Environment) HMG/N, Ministry of Population and Environment. Vol. 1, Number - 1, Special issue on the Occasion of the World Environment Day, 1996.
Pande, R. S. 1995: Status and scope of forage seed production in Nepal. Proceedings of the 2nd National Animal Science Convention, NASA), Kathmandu, 7-10 August 1995.
Pande, R. S. 1995: Performance of White Clover (Trifolium repens) in Nepal: a review. Proceedings of the IInd National Animal Science Convention, 7-10 August 1995. NASA, Lalitpur.
Pande, R. S. 1995: Potential for berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum L.) seed production in Nepal. Proceedings: Workshop on stylo and Berseem seed production and Marketing in Nepal. 30-31 May 1995. Dairy Enterprise Support Component/ATSP and Division of Livestock Services, Kathmandu.
Pande, R. S. 1993: Scope and Opportunities for Fodder and Pasture Development and potential Species in Nepal.
Pande, R.S., Shrestha, S.K, Pradhan, S. L., Pradhan, D.R, and Miller, D. J. 1993. Annual Report, 1993: Pasture and Fodder Development Programme, Livestock Services, DAD, 1993.
Pande, R. S. 1992: Need for Agro-silviculture to meet the demand of livestock feed in Nepal? Proceedings of the Regional Expert Consultation on Agro-silviculture to support Animal Production in Asia and the Pacific. Agroforestry in Support of Animal Production in Asia & the Pacific Region. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA), RAPA Publication - 1992/12 pp. 97-108. Bangkok.1992
Pande, R. S. 1991: The Role of Browse shrubs/trees as animal feed in Nepal. Proceedings of the First National Animal Science Convention, NASA, 14-15 January 1991, Kathmandu.
Pande, R. S., and P. D. Kemp 1990: Tagasaste and other forage shrubs for goats. (Co-author). Research Report, 1990, ISSN No. 0112-515X, Faculty of Agricultural and Horticultural Sciences, New Zealand: Massey University.
Pande, R. S. 1996: Trans-frontier Movement of Livestock: The Dependence Still Remains. The Rising Nepal. April 29, 1996
Pande, R. S. 1996: Animal Husbandry: Nothing to be complacent about. The Rising Nepal. 9 May, 1996
Pande, R. S. 1996: Livestock Farming: the Yak and the Himalayan Pastoralist. The Rising Nepal. June 8, 1996
Pande, R. S. 1996: Sheep Farming: A case for Promotion. The Rising Nepal. June 23, 1996
Pande, R. S. 1996: Biogas: Viable energy source. The Rising Nepal, 4 September 1996.
Pande, R. S. 1996: Livestock development: In search of greener pastures. The Rising Nepal. 4 Oct. 1996.

Consultancy Reports/Studies:

Pande, R. S. 1998: Shortage of Seeds and Planting Materials for Fodder and Pasture Development in Nepal - A case study. An essay submitted to Nepal Administrative Staff College, Lalitpur for the partial fulfilment of the Project Appraisal Training Programme, 1998.
Pande, R. S. and et al. 1988: Report of study tour of Nepali Officers to India and Pakistan (Co-author). FAO, Himalayan Pasture and Fodder Research Network: Nepal, India, Bhutan and Pakistan. Nepal. 1988
Pande, R. S. and et al 1993: Study of the Carpet Wool Production Potential in Nepal (Final Report) (Team member). Agricultural Projects Services Centre (APROSC), Kathmandu, June 1993.
Pande, R. S. and et al 1995: A study on live Animals and Animal products marketing in Nepal (Final Report) (Team Member). Nov. 1995. Agricultural Projects Services Centre (APROSC). P.O. Box. 1440, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Pande, R. S. and et al 1996: Baseline survey Report "Forage Resources Development Project" (Ilam, Panchathar, Tanahu, Syanja and Parwat). December 1996. Agricultural Projects Services Centre (APROSC). P.O. Box. 1440, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Project Reformulation Proposal, Upper Sagarmatha Agricultural Development Project, (ADB Loan No. 1114-NEP (SF), Okhaldhunga submitted to Asian Development Bank, on March 17- 26, 1996.
And others over 50 articles/reports, extension materials

SEMINARS PARTICIPATED:

2005, Capacity Building for Fodder Oat Technology, Organized by FAO/Nepal TCP/NEP/2901 and NARC/ PFD, Nepal from 8-11 March 2005, Kathmandu.
1997. Third National Animal Science Convention from 27 to 28 August 1997. Organized by Nepal Animal Science Association (NASA), Kathmandu. Presented paper on ‘Matching demand of livestock feed with available resources in Nepal’.
Second National Animal Science Convention from 7 to 10 August 1995. Organized by Nepal Animal Science Association (NASA), Kathmandu. Paper presented on “ Status and scope of forage seed production in Nepal” and “Performance of White Clover (Trifolium repens) in Nepal: a review”.
1995. Workshop on Stylo and Berseem seed production and marketing in Nepal from 30 to 31 May 1995. Organized by HMG/Nepal, Dairy Enterprise Support Component, Agro-enterprise and Technology Systems Project (ATSSP)/USAID, Kathmandu. Presented paper on “Potential for berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum L.) seed production in Nepal”.
1994, Second National Conference on Science and Technology from 8 to 11 June 1994, organized by Royal Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (RONAST). Nepal. Presented paper entitled “Promising Species for Fodder and Pasture Development in Nepal”.
1993. First Regional Conference on Prospects of Bio-technology in Nepal, Organised by Biotechnology and Biodiversity Society of Nepal, April 11-13, 1993, Birgunj. Presented a paper " Introduced pasture and fodder species in Nepal.
1993, Workshop on "Forage and Fodder" from 8 to 10 September 1993, organized by Pasture and Animal Nutrition Section of Department of Livestock Services and USAID, Nepal. Presented paper on “Scope and opportunities for fodder and pasture development and potential species in Nepal”.
1992, Second National Livestock Insurance Workshop/Seminar from 5 to 6 February 1992, organized by Credit Guarantee Corporation, FAO Biratnagar.
1991. National workshop on Regenerative agriculture in Nepal- Issues and trends, October 5-8, 1991, organised by Community Welfare and Development Society, Nepal.
1991, First National Animal Science Convention from 14 to 15 January 1991, organized by Nepal Animal Science Association (NASA), Kathmandu. Paper presented on “The Role of Browse shrubs/trees as animal feed in Nepal”
And, others many.

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCES ATTENDED:

1996, Regional Expert Meeting on ‘Rangelands and Pastoral Development in the Hindu- Kush Himalayan Region” from 5 to 7 November 1996. Organised by International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Kathmandu. Presented paper entitled ” Nepal's Experience with Forage and Pasture Development and Forage Seed Production”
1991, The Eleventh Session of FAO Regional Commission on Farm Management for Asia and the Far East, 3-6 December 1991, Kathmandu. Presented a paper " The role of livestock in farming system development in Nepal"
1990, Regional symposium organised by Himalayan Pasture and Fodder Research Network, FAO, RAS 79/121, 13-19 November 1991 Palampur and Simla India. Presented paper as co-auther Pasture and fOdder situation at high altitude region of Nepal.
1990, Regional Expert Consultation on Agro-silviculture to Support Animal Production in the Asia and Pacific Region 12 to 15 November 1990. Organised by Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific of Food and Agriculture Organisation (RAPA, FAO), Bangkok. Presented paper entitled “Need for Agro-silviculture to meet the demand of livestock feed in Nepal?”

SHORT COURSES COMPLETED:

2005, Training/workshop organised for CCO and partners staff on “Security, Safety and Risk Management” December 1 & 2, 2005 and “Social Inclusion/Gender” December 4 & 5, 2005, organised by Canadian Cooperation Office and CCO/SNV, Security and Safety Office (SSO), Nepal.
2005, Training/workshop on “Do No Harm” Project management strategies in context of conflict situation” and “Logframe Analysis” from 11-14 May 2005, Nepal Australia Community Resource Management and Livelihoods Project, Kathmandu, Nepal.
2004, Training/workshop on “Results-based Management” for AusAID Project Staff Nepal Australia Community Resource Management and Livelihoods Project, Nepal 11 April, 2004, Kathmandu, Nepal.
2003, "Training on Application of Geo Information Systems to Infrastructure and Resources Planning, Development and Management (GIS)", South Asian Institute of Technology (SAIT) from 24 December 2002 to 10 January 2003, Lalitpur, Nepal.
1998, "Project Appraisal Training Program", Nepal Administrative Staff Collage (NASC) Lalitpur, Nepal. 8 March to 15 April 1998.
1996, Training on "Biogas Technology", HMGN/ FAO and Consolidate Management Services Kathmandu, Nepal. 2 – 4 June 1996.
1992, National Training Workshop on "Biological Nitrogen Fixation", CARE International in Nepal/ BNF/LM Outreach and NifTAL/USA. Kathmandu, Nepal. 11 -15 May 1992.
1991, Training on "Computer Skills", Deutsche Gesselschaft fur Technische Zussamenabeit (GTZ), Promotion of Livestock Breeding Project, Nepal, 15 –17 July 1991, 12 –20 August 1991 and 21 –28 August 1991.
1985, Training on "Treatment and Utilization of Straw for Animal Feeding", FAO/APHCA/HMG Nepal. 23 – 28 April 1985.
1984, Training on "Integrated Rural Development", Institiut Penbangunan Tanah FELDA, Malaysia, 24 July to 5 September 1984.
And, others.